IntroductionPhotothermal refers to the process where light (typically infrared or visible) is absorbed by a material and converted into heat1. This produced heat is used in various applications including: solar energy harvesting2, medical treatments3, and in materials science4,5. Photothermal therapy is a newly developed therapeutic strategy, which employs the near-infrared (NIR) laser photoabsorbers to generate heat for thermal ablation of cancer cells upon NIR laser irradiation. To date, a variety of photothermal agents including gold nanoparticles6,7, copper nanoparticles (CuS)8,9, carbon nanomaterials10, transition metal chalcogenides11,12, silver nanostructure13, etc., have been extensively explored to produce heat up and destroy the cancer cells.Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) is one of the most stable layer transitional metal dichalcogenides which each layer is consisted of a plane of molybdenum atoms sandwiched between two layers of sulfur atoms11,14. These layers are held together by weak Van der Waals forces, allowing the material to exhibit unique properties like high lubrication15, electrical conductivity16, drug delivery17, photothermal therapy4,11, and semiconducting behavior18.MoS₂ nanoflakes possess high surface area which can enhance their interaction with biological molecules and improve drug delivery and targeting capabilities in these nanoflakes. This large surface area also is applied for easy functionalization, where targeting ligands (such as antibodies, peptides, or small molecules) can be attached to direct MoS₂ nanoparticles to specific cancer cells, minimizing off-target effects19,20. MoS₂ nanoflakes also exhibit strong NIR absorption, making them ideal candidates for photothermal applications. Their ability to absorb light in the NIR region allows them to penetrate deeper into tissues, enabling effective treatment of tumors that are located in deeper tissues. Also, MoS₂ nanoflakes demonstrate excellent photothermal conversion efficiency, biocompatibility, and low toxicity21. Due to mentioned properties, MoS₂ nanoflakes can be used as carriers for loading therapeutic drugs. When functionalized with targeting molecules, they could deliver drugs directly to the tumor site and then be activated by near-infrared (NIR) light for enhanced therapeutic effects11.Gold nanorods (GNRs) are a type of material with a rod-like shape that exhibit unique optical properties, especially when they interact with light22. Due to their size, tunable optical properties, and biocompatibility, these nanorods are often used in sensors, imaging, and drug delivery systems23,24,25. They also show a strong absorption in the NIR region, making them a photothermal agent at converting light into heat. This property makes them particularly useful in medical therapies like photothermal therapy, where they can be used to target and destroy cancer cells without affecting surrounding healthy tissue26.CuS nanoparticles are another type of nanomaterial that have attracted the most attentions in photothermal therapy due to strong absorption in the NIR region, low toxicity, cost effectiveness, thermal conversion efficiency9,27. In addition to photothermal therapy, CuS nanoparticles can also be applied in other therapeutic modalities such as drug delivery, and photoacoustic imaging28.Iron (III) oxide (Fe₃O₄), commonly known as a superparamagnetic nanoparticle with unique properties that make it highly effective for smart drug delivery systems. Due to its biocompatibility, magnetic properties, and ability to functionalize for targeted therapy, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles have been extensively studied in the field of nanomedicine. These nanoparticles are magnetically responsive, meaning they can be controlled by an external magnetic field. This property allows precise targeting of drugs to specific areas in the body, such as tumors or inflamed tissues, by applying a magnetic field. This magnetic targeting ensures that drugs are delivered directly to the affected site, increasing therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects29,30.Recently, nanotechnology has combined methods for fast therapy using multifunctional nanocomposites based on nanoparticles and layer nanostructures to quickly destroy cancer cells. In this study, our aim is to achieve the improvement magnetic targeting photothermal therapy of MoS2 nanoflakes. To do this, CuS nanoparticles, GNRs were incorporated in MoS2 nanoflakes to obtain MoS2/CuS/GNR (MCG nanocomposite). After that, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were used for the targeted treatment of solid tumors. When using these materials, a magnet is used to create an external magnetic field, therefore these nanoparticles will be more concentrated in the tumor area and healthy cells have the least contact with them. Then, MCG nanocomposite was coated with hydrophilic poly ethylene glycol (PEG) polymer to increase the colloidal dispersity and stability of synthesized nanocomposite in aqueous media. Finally, a potent anticancer doxorubicin (DOX) was chosen for delivery by MCG nanocomposite, and the release of drug was evaluated by irradiation of NIR light. The results of current search show that MCG nanocomposite could be used as a smart controllable drug delivery system by photothermal effect.Experimental detailsMaterialsCopper (II) chloride dehydrate (CuCl2·2H2O, ≥ 99.0%), thioglycolic acid, and thioacetamide ((CH3CSNH2, ≥ 99.0%) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate ((NH4)6Mo7O24·4H2O, ≥ 99.0%), polyethylene glycol 400 (H(OCH2CH2)nOH, PEG 400), hydrazine hydrate (50%, v/v), ferric trichloride anhydrous(FeCl3), ascorbic acid, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CH3(CH2)15N(Br) (CH3)3, CTAB, ≥ 99%), hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (HAuCl4.3H2O, ≥ 99.9%), sodium borohydride (NaBH4, ≥ 98%), hydroquinone (C6H4(OH)2, 99%), and silver nitrate (AgNO3, ≥ 99.0%) were purchased from Merck company. All these materials were used without any further purification.Synthesis of MCG nanocompositeThe synthesis of the MCG nanocomposite involves four main steps.I.Synthesis of MoS2/Fe₃O₄ Nanoflakes: MoS₂/Fe₃O₄ nanosheets were prepared using a two-step hydrothermal method18.II.Synthesis of GNRs: GNRs were synthesized via the seed-mediated method31. In this method, in the first step, the spherical gold seed solution was prepared as follows: 364.4 mg of CTAB aqueous solution (5 mL) was added to 5 ml of 0.5 mM hydrogen tetrachloroaurate aqueous solution under stirring. After that, 600 µL of 10 mM sodium borohydride aqueous solution was added to the above mixture, it was shown that the solution’s color immediately changed from yellow to light brown. In GNR growth step, 182.2 mg of CTAB was mixed to 22 mg hydroquinone in 5 mL de-ionized water under ultrasonication. After that, 200 µl of 4 mM silver nitrate aqueous solution, and 5 ml of 1 mM hydrogen tetrachloroaurate aqueous solution were added to the above solution. Finally, 12 µL of the spherical gold seeds suspension was added to gained solution. To complete the GNRs growth process, suspension was kept undisturbed for 24 h before purification at 27 °C. The GNR suspension was centrifuged twice (6000 rpm, 30 min) to remove excess CTAB, and then dispersed in de-ionized water.I.Synthesis of CuS Nanoparticles: First, 200 mL of CuCl₂0.2 H₂O aqueous solution (0.1 mmol) was added to 28.4 µL of thioglycolic acid aqueous solution (0.2 mmol) under constant stirring. Next, a 1 M NaOH aqueous solution was added drop-wise to the mixture while adjusting the pH to 9.0. Then, 40 mL of thioacetamide aqueous solution (0.1 mmol) was added into gained solution. Finally, the solution was heated at 50 °C for 2 h to promote nanoparticle growth.II.Formation of the MCG Nanocomposite: To assemble the MCG nanocomposite, 0.05 g of the synthesized MoS₂/Fe₃O₄ powder was dispersed in 20 mL of deionized water. Finally, 5 mL of the GNR and CuS solutions were separately added drop-wise to the MoS₂/Fe₃O₄ solution under continuous stirring.Cell experimentsIn this study, HeLa cells were used to investigate cell viability. The cells were cultured in normal DMEM medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Cytotoxicity was then assessed in vitro using the standard Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay.DOX loading into MCG - PEGPEG is a hydrophilic and biocompatible polymer that enhances the physiological stability of samples in the body. In this study, MoS2 and the MCG nanocomposite were coated with PEG.For DOX loading into the MCG nanocomposite, 2 mg of MCG sample was first dispersed in 2 mL of an aqueous DOX solution (mg/mL). The mixture was then stirred overnight in a dark room. Finally, the DOX-loaded nanocomposite was centrifuged and washed until the supernatant became colorless, indicating the removal of unbound DOX.DOX release under NIR irradiationTo evaluate DOX release under NIR irradiation, 0.1 µg/mL of DOX-MCG-PEG was incubated in PBS at two different pH levels (pH = 5.5, and 7.4). The samples were then exposed to NIR irradiation (1 W/cm²), and at predetermined time points, the fluorescence of DOX was measured to assess its release.Cell viability analysisIn the first part of this experiment, we assessed the cytotoxic effect of NIR laser irradiation on cells without using DOX. HeLa cells were seeded into a 96-well culture plate and incubated for 24 h. The cells were then exposed to NIR irradiation (1 W/cm²) for a predetermined duration and incubated overnight. For experiments involving DOX and DOX-loaded nanocomposites, the cell culture medium was replaced with fresh medium containing a predetermined concentration of DOX, followed by overnight incubation. Finally, cell cytotoxicity was evaluated using the MTT assay.Using spectrometer at wavelength of 495 nm, the drug loading capacity and entrapment efficiency were calculated the formulas (1) and (2), respectively:$$\text{Loading Capacity}\: (\text{LC}\:{\%}) = [(\text{m}_0-\text{m}_1)/\text{m}_2] \times 100$$(1)$$\text{Entrapment Efficiency}\: (\text{EE} {\%}) = [(\text{m}_0-\text{m}_1)/\text{m}_0] \times 10$$(2)Where m0 is initial mass of DOX before loading, m1 is supernatant free amount of DOX after loading, and m2 is nanocomposite mass.Characterization of the samplesPowder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained using an X-ray diffractometer STADI STOE with CuKα irradiation (λ = 1.5405 Å) over a 2θ range of 10–80°. Data were analyzed using X’Pert software. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis was performed using a Tecnai G2 F20 (200 kV scanning transmission electron microscopes). The zeta potential and dynamic light scatting (DLS) analysis of MCG nanocomposite was performed on a Nano–flex 2. UV-Vis spectroscopy was conducted using a Perkin Elmer LAMBDA 20 UV-Vis spectrometer. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was conducted using a Bomem Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry with a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹ over 64 scans. The photothermal effect was measured by using a diode laser (Fiber Coupled Diode Laser, 808 nm, 10 w) when was irradiated perpendicular to a quartz cell containing aqueous solution of samples (total volume = 2 mL). HeLa cell line was purchased from the cell bank of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences of Iran.Results and discussionsCharacterization of nanocompositeFigure 1(a-f) presents TEM images of MoS₂, MoS₂/Fe3O4, CuS, GNRs, and the MCG nanocomposite. Figure 1(a, b) reveals that MoS₂ adopts a flower-like structure, consisting of numerous interlaced nanoflakes with diameter of about 180–300 nm and an average thickness of about 2 nm (3–6 layers). In Fig. 1c, Fe3O4 samples with diameter at about 25 nm randomly distributed over the MoS2 nanoflakes. Figure 1d exhibits the CuS material with nanospherical morphology and diameters of approximately 11 nm which were incorporated in between MoS2/Fe3O4 sample. Figure 1e indicates the GNRs with an aspect ratios (length divided by width) of 2.4 synthesized by seed-mediated method. Therefore, the longitudinal plasmon peak of GNRs with such average aspect ratio is estimated at about 700–800 nm wavelength which agree with other reports31.As shown in Fig. 1f, the MCG nancomposite also retains a flower-like morphology; however, this structure results from the decoration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles, CuS nanoparticles, GNRs by MoS₂ interlaced nanoflakets, which are approximately 5 nm thickness and 180–300 nm diameter. Also, any significant change was not observed in size of these nanoparticles after that were imbedded between MoS2 nanoflakes.Fig. 1TEM images of (a, b) MoS2 nanoflakes, (c) MoS₂/Fe3O4, (d) MoS₂/Fe3O4/CuS, (e) GNRs, and (f) MCG nanocomposite in different scales.Full size imageFigure 2a shows the zeta potential diagrams of MCG nanocomposite measured at 25 °C. The zeta potential was + 2.73 mV, which actually determines the surface charge of nanocomposite. The MoS2 nanoflakes exhibited a zeta potential of −38.2 mV, which changed to + 2.73 mV when decorated with Fe3O4 nanoparticles, CuS nanoparticles, GNRs. The zeta potential changed from negative to positive due of the presence of amino groups in PEG.To assess the lateral size distribution of MCG nanocomposite, DLS analysis was conducted. Figure 2b presents the number as a function of particle size for a MCG nanocomposite dispersion sample. The lateral size of the nanocomposite ranges from approximately 50 to 142 nm which is appropriate for use as cell-targeted drug delivery system.Fig. 2(a) Zeta potential diagram, and (b) DLS results for MCG nanocomposite.Full size imageThe phase structure of the obtained samples was examined using XRD analysis. The XRD patterns of MoS₂ nanoflakes (red line), Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (yellow line), CuS nanoparticles (green line), GNRs (blue line), and the MCG nanocomposite (pink line) are presented in Fig. 3. As shown in the figure, the diffraction peaks are indexed accordingly for all samples. In red line, peaks 13.9°, 33.2°, and 59.4° correspond to the (0 0 2), (1 0 0), and (1 1 0) crystal planes respectively, indicate a hexagonal structure with a space group of P6₃/mmc for MoS₂ nanoflakes (JCPDS Card No. 00–006-0097)32. In yellow line, peaks 30.1°, 35.5°, 43.1, 57.1, and 62.6° correspond to the (2 2 0), (3 1 1), (4 0 0), (5 1 1), and (4 4 0) cubic phase of Fe₃O₄ crystal planes, respectively (JCPDS Card No. 01–075-0033)33. In green line peaks at 28.9°, 31.7°, 48.4°, and 58.3° correspond to reflections from the (1 0 2), (1 0 3), (1 1 0), and (1 1 6) crystal planes respectively, indicate a cubic CuS structure (JCPDS Card No. 01–006-0464)34. In blue line, located peaks at 36.9°, 45.2°, 68.9° and 77.1° angles correspond to the (1 1 1), (2 0 0), (2 2 0) and (3 1 1) planes, indicate a face centered cubic structure with fd3m space group for GNRs (JCPDS Card No 008–0234)35. As seen in the pink line, all characteristic peaks of the individual components are present in the XRD pattern of the MCG nanocomposite. This confirms that Fe₃O₄, CuS nanoparticles, and Au NRs are embedded within the MoS₂ nanoflakes.Fig. 3XRD pattern of MoS₂, Fe₃O₄, CuS, GNRs, and MCG nanocomposite.Full size imageTo elucidate chemical composition and bond identification present in product molecules, FTIR technique was used. Figure 4 shows the FTIR spectrum of the prepared MoS2 nanoflakes, MoS2/Fe₃O₄, GNRs, and MCG nanocomposite. Broad absorption bands at 596 cm−1, 720 cm−1, 1051 cm−1, 1438 cm−1, 1630 cm−1, and 3432 cm−1 wavenumber were attributed to MoS2 nanoflakes. The peak at about 596 cm−1 wavenumber corresponds to Mo–S bond vibration. The peaks at about 720 cm−1 and 1051 cm−1 are due to S–S and S–O bonds stretching, respectively. The peaks at about 1438 cm−1 and 1630 cm−1 are ascribed C-O-C, C-O bond stretching vibration adsorbed moisture during synthesis process. Also, broad peak 3432 cm−1 represents formation of symmetrical stretching vibration of O–H in PEG32,35. This characterization confirms that PEG has modified the surface of MoS2. In FTIR spectrum of Fe₃O₄ (yellow line), one peak at about 570 cm−1 is indexed as Fe–O bond vibrations29. In blue line, a weak bond at 1200 cm−1 attributed to C-N stretching of CTAB. In FTIR spectrum of GNRs also indicate a strong broad peak in 3455 cm−1 and a weak peak in 1640 cm−1, assigned to O-H stretching of the adsorbed H2O36,37. The peaks at about 692 cm−1 signify the existence of Cu-O bond20,34. All of mentioned peak exist in FTIR spectrum of MCG, so the successful synthesis of MCG nanocomposite was confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy.Fig. 4FTIR spectroscopy for MoS2, Fe₃O₄, GNRs, and MCG nanocomposite.Full size imageFigure 5 exhibits UV–Visible spectrum for MoS2 nanoflakes (red line), and MCG nanocomposite (pink line) to characterize their optical property. As reported in other literatures, excitonic peaks at A = 672 nm wavelength determines the band gap (E = 1360/λ (nm)) in these nanoflakes11,38. On the other hands, band gap can estimate the number (thickness) of layers in nanoflakes that it is between 3 and 6 layers in our synthesized sample which is in agreement with TEM images. As seen in this figure, the amount of absorption spectrum of MCG nanocomposite (pink line) is higher than pure MoS2 nanoflakes in all of wavelengths (with the same concentration). Also, this figure confirms that the number of layers (thickness) in nanocomposite is more than pure MoS2, because the position of A excitonic peak (λ = 760 nm) is bigger than pure MoS2 nanoflakes (680 nm).Fig. 5UV-Vis spectroscopy of MoS2 nanoflakes (red line), and MCG nanocomposite (pink line).Full size imagePhotothermal activityGiven the advantages of NIR region in biomedical studies, such as deep penetration of irradiation to tissues, the NIR region is a favorable irradiation for biomedical studies. Thus, an 808 nm laser irradiation at a power density of 1 W/cm2 was applied to study the photothermal effect of the MoS2, CuS, GNRs, and MCG samples by thermocouple thermometer. As shown in Fig. 6a, for the control experiments, the temperature of de-ionized water revealed no significant increase under NIR laser irradiation after 10 min. As seen in this figure, the temperature of the MoS2 solution (150 mg/mL) increased from 28.0 to 33.3 ◦C while the temperature of CuS, GNR, and MCG solutions showed a rapid increase from 28.0 °C to 40.0 °C, 48.4 °C, and 50.0 °C, respectively (in the same concentrations).As reported in previous literatures3,9, the strong absorption of GNRs in the NIR region compared with MoS2 and CuS, ensures that its photothermal efficiency would be dramatically enhanced when a laser is used to irradiate the nanomaterial. Figure 5 also shows that developed MCG nanocomposite has a higher absorption compared to pure MoS2. This strong absorption of the nanocomposite in this region motivated us to explore its photothermal properties. The photothermal effect of MCG nanocomposites was investigated by measuring the temperature changes in nanocomposite solution at various concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 \(\:\mu\:g/mL\)) under 808 nm laser irradiation. As shown in Fig. 6b, with an increase in the concentration of nanocomposites, the temperature of the solutions increased rapidly. Furthermore, the temperature of the solution with 200 \(\:\mu\:\)g/mL concentration showed a 19 °C increase (from 28 °C to 57.0 °C) after 808 nm laser irradiation for 10 min, while the pure water showed negligible changes. The final temperatures of the nanocomposites with other concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150\(\:\:\mu\:g/mL\)) were 37.9 °C, 40.1 °C, 44.8 °C, and 50.0 °C respectively, under laser illumination after 10 min. These data indicate that this nanocomposite could act as an efficient photothermal agent.For photothermal therapy, a minimum temperature of 50 °C was able to destroy cancer cells39. Therefore, an irradiation time of 1 min was set for MCG nanocomposite with concentration of 200 \(\:\frac{\mu\:g}{mL}\) in the application of photothermal therapy.Fig. 6Plot of temperature versus time for (a) water, MoS2, CuS, GNRs, and MCG solutions, (b) MCG nanocomposite with different concentrations (0 to 200 mg/mL) under 808 nm laser irradiation (1 W/cm2) for 10 min.Full size imageIn vitro drug releaseTo evaluate the potential of using DOX/MCG/PEG as a drug delivery system, controllable drug release behavior of the nanocarrier was investigated. Figure 7a shows absorption spectroscopy versus drug concentration in MCG nanocarrier. As seen in this figure, there is a linear relationship between the absorbance value and the concentration. According to the Lambert Beer Law, there is a linear increase of absorbance with concentration at a particular wavelength. Using Eq. (1), the loading capacity of DOX in nanocomposite was calculated 19.8%.Fig. 7(a) Calibration graph of absorbance versus concentration for DOX-MCG, (b) Cumulative release of DOX versus time from MCG with, and without 808 nm laser irradiation.Full size imageThe in vitro release behavior of DOX was investigated in two different pH media (5.5 and 7.4) with and without laser irradiation (Fig. 7b). At pH = 5.5, the released DOX from the DOX/MCG-PEG was less than 8% without laser irradiation after 2 h. In contrast, DOX release exceeded 84% after 2 h laser irradiation, which was higher than that without irradiation. Also, in the presence of laser irradiation, the cumulative release of DOX after 2 h at pH = 5.5 (84%) was much greater than that at pH 7.4. These results indicate that the NIR light-triggered photothermal heating effect leads to the vibration of the MoS2 nanoflakes and consequently decreases the interaction between DOX and the nanocarrier which could promote the release of DOX. Thus MCG nanocomposite can be beneficial in drug delivery and photothermal therapy40.Cell vibiabilityThe synergistic therapeutic efficacy of DOX/MCG against cancer cells were investigated by MTT assay after incubation with HeLa cells, cells treated with a NIR laser irradiation (808 nm, 1 W/cm2) after 10 min. As seen in Fig. 8, the cell viability of DOX treated cells was above 65% in all concentrations, showing drug has high biocompatibility. But, by NIR irradiation, the relative viability of Hela cell decrease very good.This figure also illustrates that cell viabilities of DOX/MCG nanocomposite was lower than DOX at an equivalent dose of drug, indicating the chemotherapy effect of the MoS2 nanocomposites. On the other hand, the cell viability in DOX/MCG group under laser irradiation was lower than without laser irradiation, indicating the photothermal therapy effect of the MCG nanocomposites. Therefore, cell viability in the synergistic therapy group (DOX/MCG + laser) was much lower than DOX/MCG sample without laser irradiation. The result demonstrates that the MCG nanocomposites can kill solid tumors through synergistic therapy. It is worth noting that NIR laser irradiation both induces heat for photothermal therapy and accelerates the release of DOX from the nanocomposite through heat stimulated interactions between DOX and nanocomposite40. This leads to enhanced chemotherapy and the cytotoxic effect of the sample under laser irradiation was intensely enhanced in HeLa cells compared to without laser irradiation. All these results confirmed that the constructed multifunctional drug delivery system was effective in killing the tumor cells and is promising in chemo-photothermal combined cancer therapy.Fig. 8Cytotoxicity of Hela cells with MCG in different concentrations of DOX with and without laser irradiation.Full size imageConclusionIn the present study, a multifunctional MoS2-based drug delivery system (MCG nanocomposite) was successfully synthesized and shown to allow tumor-targeting synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy. The structural and optical properties for MCG nanocomposite was investigated via TEM, XRD, Zeta potential, DLS, FTIR, and UV-Vis spectroscopies to confirm that Fe3O4, CuS nanoparticles, GNRs have been incorporated non-uniform between MoS2 nanoflakes. The photothermal results of samples indicated that MCG nanocomposite produced higher photothermal heat than each individual sample alone (808 nm NIR laser irradiation at a power density of 1 W/cm2 after 10 min). The highest photothermal heat obtained from nanocomposite in 200 mg/mL concentration. Then, PEG was added nanocomposite to achieve excellent biocompatibility. The results confirm that the release of DOX in pH = 5.5 environments and under NIR light irradiation was faster than pH = 7.4, which is promising for tumor-specific delivery. So, increasing of nanocomposite concentration, pH, NIR irradiation and increasing of DOX concentration in sample are important factors in overcoming to cancerous cells. Therefore, we claim that, DOX/MCG nanocomposite under NIR light irradiation can open a new venue in cancer therapy process and efficiently can kill cancer cells and avoid destruction of surrounding healthy tissues.Data availabilityData is provided within the manuscript file.ReferencesCui, X. et al. Photothermal nanomaterials: a powerful light-to-heat converter. Chem. Rev. 123 (11), 6891–6952 (2023).Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Qian, C., Li, M. J., Liu, Z. M., Xue, H. Y. & He, Y. A study on novel dual-functional photothermal material for high-efficient solar energy harvesting and storage. Energy Storage Materials, 70, p.103466. (2024).Abareshi, A., Bafkari, R., Houshiar, M. & Dinarvand, R. Molybdenum disulfide/carbon nanocomposite with enhanced photothermal effect for doxorubicin delivery. Eur. Phys. J. Plus. 136 (1), 1–16 (2021).Article Google Scholar Fomina, P. S. & Proskurnin, M. A. Photothermal radiometry methods in materials science and applied chemical research. Journal Appl. Physics, 132(4), 040701 (2022).Zou, L. et al. Current approaches of photothermal therapy in treating cancer metastasis with nanotherapeutics. Theranostics, 6(6), p.762. (2016).Taylor, M. L., Wilson, R. E. Jr, Amrhein, K. D. & Huang, X. Gold nanorod-assisted photothermal therapy and improvement strategies. Bioengineering 9 (5), 200 (2022).Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Dheyab, M. A. et al. Gold nanoparticles-based photothermal therapy for breast cancer. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 42, p.103312. (2023).Ma, J. et al. In vivo synergistic tumor therapies based on copper sulfide photothermal therapeutic nanoplatforms. In Exploration, 3 (5), p. 20220161. (2023).Mahmoodabadi, M., Goodarzi, M. T., Salehi, N., Jalali, A. & Zahedi, E. Investigation of structure, optical, and photothermal properties in MoS2/Fe3O4/CuS nanocomposite for doxorubicin delivery. Appl. Phys. A. 131 (1), 1–12 (2025).Article Google Scholar Dias, L. D., Buzzá, H. H., Stringasci, M. D. & Bagnato, V. S. Recent advances in combined photothermal and photodynamic therapies against cancer using carbon nanomaterial platforms for in vivo studies. Photochem 1 (3), 434–447 (2021).Article Google Scholar Abareshi, A., Samadi, N., Houshiar, M., Nafisi, S. & Maibach, H. I. Erythromycin dermal delivery by MoS 2 nanoflakes. J. Pharm. Invest. 51, 691–700 (2021).Article CAS Google Scholar Zhang, A., Li, A., Zhao, W. & Liu, J. Recent advances in functional polymer decorated two-dimensional transition‐metal dichalcogenides nanomaterials for chemo‐photothermal therapy. Chemistry–A Eur. J. 24 (17), 4215–4227 (2018).Article CAS Google Scholar Bi, X. et al. Silver peroxide nanoparticles for combined antibacterial sonodynamic and photothermal therapy. Small, 18(2), p.2104160. (2022).Yan, R. et al. Thermal conductivity of monolayer molybdenum disulfide obtained from temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy. ACS Nano. 8 (1), 986–993 (2014).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Sethurajaperumal, A., Srivastava, S., Ganesh, G., Sundara, R. & Varrla, E. Natural surfactant stabilized aqueous MoS2 nano-lubricants for reducing friction and wear. Chemical Engineering Journal, 496, p.154080. (2024).Krbal, M. et al. Anomalous electrical conductivity change in MoS2 during the transition from the amorphous to crystalline phase. Ceram. Int. 49 (2), 2619–2625 (2023).Article CAS Google Scholar Pourmadadi, M. et al. A comprehensive review of synthesis, structure, properties, and functionalization of MoS2; emphasis on drug delivery, photothermal therapy, and tissue engineering applications. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 76, p.103767. (2022).Yu, J. et al. Smart MoS2/Fe3O4 nanotheranostic for magnetically targeted photothermal therapy guided by magnetic resonance/photoacoustic imaging. Theranostics, 5(9), p.931. (2015).Liu, H. Q., Yao, C. B., Jiang, C. H. & Wang, X. Preparation, modification and nonlinear optical properties of semiconducting MoS2 and MoS2/ZnO composite film. Optics & Laser Technology, 138, p.106905. (2021).Wang, J. et al. MoS2-based nanocomposites for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Bioactive Mater. 6 (11), 4209–4242 (2021).Article MathSciNet CAS Google Scholar Cao, Y. et al. A near-infrared triggered upconversion/MoS2 nanoplatform for tumour-targeted chemo-photodynamic combination therapy. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 213, p.112393. (2022).Abareshi, A., Pirlar, M. A. & Houshiar, M. Experimental and theoretical investigation of the photothermal effect in gold nanorods. New J. Chem. 45 (1), 298–303 (2021).Article CAS Google Scholar Meyer, S. M. & Murphy, C. J. Anisotropic silica coating on gold nanorods boosts their potential as SERS sensors. Nanoscale 14 (13), 5214–5226 (2022).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Khan, N. U., Lin, J., Younas, M. R., Liu, X. & Shen, L. Synthesis of gold nanorods and their performance in the field of cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy. Cancer Nanotechnol. 12, 1–33 (2021).Article Google Scholar Jahangiri-Manesh, A. et al. Gold nanorods for drug and gene delivery: an overview of recent advancements. Pharmaceutics, 14(3), p.664. (2022).Zhou, R. et al. Gold nanorods-based photothermal therapy: interactions between biostructure, nanomaterial, and near-infrared irradiation. Nanoscale Research Letters, 17(1), p.68. (2022).Qiang, S. et al. CuS Nanoparticles-Loaded and cisplatin prodrug conjugated Fe (III)–MOFs for MRI-Guided combination of chemotherapy and NIR-II photothermal therapy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 14 (32), 36503–36514 (2022).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Zhou, H. C. et al. Intravital NIR-II three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging of biomineralized copper sulfide nanoprobes. J. Mater. Chem. B. 9 (13), 3005–3014 (2021).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Abareshi, A. & Salehi, N. The effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on structural, optical, and thermal properties MoS2 nanoflakes. J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. 33 (33), 25153–25162 (2022).CAS Google Scholar Li, L. et al. Magnetic and fluorescent multifunctional chitosan nanoparticles as a smart drug delivery system. Nanotechnology, 18(40), p.405102. (2007).Picciolini, S., Mehn, D., Ojea-Jiménez, I., Gramatica, F. & Morasso, C. Hydroquinone based synthesis of gold nanorods. Journal Visualized Experiments: Jove, 10(114), 54319 (2016).Abareshi, A., ArshadiPirlar, M. & Houshiar, M. Photothermal property in MoS2 nanoflakes: theoretical and experimental comparison, Mat. Res. Express, 6, pp.105050. (2019).El Ghandoor, H. M. Z. H., Zidan, H. M., Khalil, M. M. & Ismail, M. I. M. Synthesis and some physical properties of magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 7 (6), 5734–5745 (2012).Article Google Scholar Li, Y., Lu, W., Huang, Q., Li, C. & Chen, W. Copper sulfide nanoparticles for photothermal ablation of tumor cells. Nanomedicine 5 (8), 1161–1171 (2010).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Ali, A. et al. Ultrathin MoS 2 nanosheets for high-performance photoelectrochemical applications via plasmonic coupling with Au nanocrystals. Nanoscale 11 (16), 7813–7824 (2019).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Raza, A. et al. Enhanced industrial dye degradation using Co doped in chemically exfoliated MoS 2 nanosheets. Appl. Nanosci. 10, 1535–1544 (2020).Article ADS CAS Google Scholar Cao, W. et al. Folic acid-conjugated gold nanorod@ polypyrrole@ Fe 3 O 4 nanocomposites for targeted MR/CT/PA multimodal imaging and chemo-photothermal therapy. RSC Adv. 9 (33), 18874–18887 (2019).Article ADS CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Salehi, N. & Abareshi, A. Study of structural, optical, and thermal properties in MoS2-based nanocomposites: iron and gold. The European Physical Journal Plus, 137(11), p.1284. (2022).Huang, X., Jain, P. K., El-Sayed, I. H. & El‐Sayed, M. A. Determination of the minimum temperature required for selective photothermal destruction of cancer cells with the use of immunotargeted gold nanoparticles. Photochem. Photobiol. 82 (2), 412–417 (2006).Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Zhang, X. et al. Functionalized MoS2-nanosheets for targeted drug delivery and chemo-photothermal therapy. Colloids Surf., B. 173, 101–108 (2019).Article ADS CAS Google Scholar Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors would like to acknowledge the Research Council of Shahrood Azad University for supporting this research.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Biochemistry, Shahrood Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrood, IranMaryam Mahmoodabadi & Mohammad Taghi GoodarziDepartment of Basic Sciences, Shahrood Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrood, IranNasrin SalehiDepartment of Chemistry, Herbal Medicines Raw Materials Research Center, Shahrood Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrood, IranAlireza Jalali & Ehsan ZahediAuthorsMaryam MahmoodabadiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMohammad Taghi GoodarziView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarNasrin SalehiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAlireza JalaliView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarEhsan ZahediView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsMaryam Mahmoodabadi, Mohammad Taghi Goodarzi, Nasrin Salehi, Alireza Jalali, and Ehsan Zahedi contributed equally to this article.All authors reviewed the manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to Nasrin Salehi.Ethics declarationsCompeting interestsThe authors declare no competing interests.Additional informationPublisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Rights and permissionsOpen Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.Reprints and permissionsAbout this article