Map created by Alexander AltenhofThe map above shows the political situation in Europe after the Congress of Vienna in June 1815 following Napoleon’s Final defeat in the 100 days.Here are some of the changes that occurred to pre-revolutionary Europe:The Congress of ViennaThe Congress of Vienna (September 1814 – June 1815) was a diplomatic conference held after the Napoleonic Wars to reorganize Europe’s political map and establish a stable balance of power.Its primary purpose was to create a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling issues arising from the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The great powers sought to restore pre-revolutionary regimes (the principle of legitimacy) and to prevent any one nation (like France) from dominating Europe again.This led to the restoration of many monarchies and the redrawing of borders to ensure no single power could easily upset the European order.In effect, the Congress ushered in an era of conservative reaction against the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution, aiming for stability over revolution.Key participants: The Congress was dominated by the major victorious powers: Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and a re-integrated France.Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich hosted and chaired the talks, pushing a conservative vision for Europe.Britain’s foreign minister Viscount Castlereagh (later replaced by the Duke of Wellington) represented British interests, focusing on balance of power and containing France.Tsar Alexander I personally led the Russian delegation, seeking to expand Russian influence (especially in Poland) while promoting a lasting peace under Christian monarchies.King Frederick William III of Prussia sent Chancellor Karl von Hardenberg (and diplomat Wilhelm von Humboldt), with Prussia aiming to gain territory in northern Germany (like Saxony and the Rhineland).Although France had been defeated, the wily diplomat Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand secured France a place at the negotiating table and played the powers against each other to prevent France’s dismemberment.In addition to these “Big Five,” representatives of smaller states – such as Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and various German and Italian states – were present, though they had less influence on the final decisions.Major territorial changes: The Congress of Vienna produced the most comprehensive reshaping of the European map Europe had ever seen up to that time.Some key outcomes included:France: Lost all territories conquered under Napoleon, retreating to essentially its 1790 borders. The Bourbon monarchy was restored under Louis XVIII, and France was surrounded by stronger states to contain it (e.g. a robust Kingdom of the Netherlands in the north and an enlarged Piedmont-Sardinia in the south).Prussia: Gained significant new territories in both the west and east. Prussia annexed the northern Rhineland and Westphalia in western Germany, as well as parts of Saxony (about 40% of the Kingdom of Saxony) and the whole of Swedish Pomerania, greatly expanding its size and positioning it as a guardian on France’s eastern frontier. In the east, Prussia re-gained the Poznań (Posen) region of Poland and other Polish territories, becoming one of the partitioning powers of the former Duchy of Warsaw.Russia: Emerged territorially larger, cementing its role as a dominant land power. Tsar Alexander’s Russia acquired most of the Duchy of Warsaw, i.e. central Poland, which was reconstituted as the nominal “Congress Kingdom of Poland” under Russian administration. Russia already held Finland (taken from Sweden in 1809) and Bessarabia (taken from the Ottomans in 1812), so by 1815 its western border had moved further into Europe.Habsburg Austria: Although Austria had to relinquish the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and their claims in southwest Germany, it was compensated with territory in Italy and Central Europe. Austria gained control of Lombardy and Venetia in northern Italy, extending Habsburg influence deep into the Italian Peninsula. It also regained Tyrol and Salzburg and took a leading role in the newly formed German Confederation. The Austrian Empire (under Emperor Francis I/II) presided over this German Confederation, affirming Austria’s leadership in Central Europe despite the end of the Holy Roman Empire.German States: The nearly 300 states of the defunct Holy Roman Empire (dissolved by Napoleon in 1806) were consolidated into a much simpler configuration of 39 states. These formed the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose association under Austrian presidency. Kingdoms like Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hanover were enlarged with additional territories, while smaller entities were mediatized or absorbed. This reorganization aimed to provide stability in Central Europe and prevent the resurgence of French influence among fragmented German mini-states.United Kingdom of the Netherlands: A new Kingdom of the Netherlands was created in the northwest, uniting the former Dutch Republic with the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) under the Dutch House of Orange. This enlarged kingdom served as a strong buffer state on France’s northern border. (In practice, the union was tenuous – Belgium would revolt and secede in 1830 – but in 1815 it was intended to be a single kingdom.)Italy: The Italian Peninsula was re-divided among old dynasties and Austrian influence, essentially undoing Napoleon’s reorganizations. Austria directly controlled Lombardy-Venetia. The Bourbon Kingdom of Naples (Two Sicilies) was restored under King Ferdinand after Napoleon’s brother-in-law, Murat, was ousted. The Papal States under the Pope were reinstated in central Italy. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (Savoy) was re-established and even gained the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a buffer against France. Smaller duchies (Tuscany, Modena, Parma) were returned to their Habsburg or Bourbon rulers. Italy became, as Metternich quipped, a “geographical expression” – a patchwork of seven major states under great-power oversight.Scandinavia: The balance shifted in the north. As decided by the Treaty of Kiel (1814) during the war, Norway was transferred from Denmark to the rule of the King of Sweden, creating a dual Kingdom of Sweden-Norway (a personal union). This was a reward to Sweden (which, under Crown Prince Bernadotte, had joined the fight against Napoleon) and punishment for Denmark’s alliance with Napoleon. Denmark retained control of Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany but was significantly weakened. Sweden, having lost Finland to Russia in 1809, gained Norway as compensation and emerged from the Napoleonic era in union with its new territory.Great Britain: Britain had no territorial gains on the continent proper, but it emerged as the leading colonial and naval power. At Vienna, Britain’s interests were to ensure a stable continent and favorable maritime conditions. The UK did gain some strategic territories overseas or on Europe’s fringes during the peace settlements (for instance, confirmed possession of Malta and Heligoland, and control over former French and Dutch colonies like the Cape Colony and Ceylon) – but in European map terms Britain’s borders (now the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the 1801 union with Ireland) remained the same. Britain’s role was chiefly to guarantee the new European balance and to ward off any single power’s domination.Switzerland: The Swiss Confederation was restored and enlarged. After the turmoil of the Napoleonic period (when Switzerland had been a French-influenced Helvetic Republic), the Congress re-established Switzerland as a confederation of 22 cantons with a policy of perpetual neutrality guaranteed by the great powers. Several new cantons (e.g. Geneva, Neuchâtel, Valais) were added, and Swiss independence from French influence was affirmed.Spain and Portugal: The Bourbon dynasty was restored in Spain (King Ferdinand VII returned after Napoleon’s brother Joseph was deposed), and Spain’s 1789 borders were essentially restored (France gave up its brief annexations in Catalonia, etc.). Portugal, Britain’s long-time ally, had been invaded by Napoleon but by 1815 its independence was secure under the House of Braganza (which had temporarily moved the court to Brazil during the war). A minor territorial dispute lingered: Portugal pressed to recover Olivenza, a town seized by Spain in 1801, and the Congress’s Final Act acknowledged the justice of Portugal’s claim– though in practice Spain retained Olivenza. Overall, however, the Iberian borders of 1815 looked much like those of 1789, with the revolutionary interlude reversed.These adjustments, enshrined in the Final Act of the Congress (June 9, 1815), created a balance of power that the statesmen hoped would preserve peace.Indeed, the Vienna settlement prevented a general European war for nearly 40 years. The Congress system (or “Concert of Europe”) was established to resolve future disputes diplomatically and maintain the status quo. Despite later criticism that Vienna suppressed liberal aspirations, it undeniably reshaped Europe and set the stage for the 19th-century orderEuropean Borders: 1789 vs. 1815In 1789, Europe’s political map was still largely defined by the old dynastic kingdoms and empires.France was a unified kingdom under the Bourbon monarchy (its territory extended to the Rhine in the east and the Pyrenees in the south, but it did not yet include regions like Belgium or the left bank of the Rhine that it would annex during the revolution).Central Europe was dominated by the Holy Roman Empire (outlined in red on the map), a complex patchwork of hundreds of semi-sovereign duchies, bishoprics, free cities, and kingdoms loosely united under the Austrian Habsburg Emperor.The Habsburg Monarchy (Austria proper) itself was a major power, ruling not only over Austrian and Bohemian lands but also the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and territories in northern Italy, as well as the Hungarian kingdom (indicated as “Hungary” on the map, though under Habsburg rule).To the east, the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth still existed in 1789, though much weakened and territorially smaller after a first partition (1772) by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.Great Britain (which in 1789 comprised England, Scotland, and Ireland in personal union) had no continental possessions apart from Gibraltar, focusing instead on its overseas empire.In Southern Europe, the Spanish and Portuguese empires remained intact within Iberia, and the Ottoman Empire still controlled the Balkans and parts of the Black Sea coast (the Crimean Khanate had just been annexed by Russia in 1783).In summary, 1789 Europe was the world of the Ancien Régime, with old borders and rulers, soon to be upended by revolutionary France.By 1815, after twenty-five years of revolution and war, Europe’s borders had been dramatically reshuffled.The Congress of Vienna largely restored or recreated states that had been altered or destroyed by Napoleon, but Europe in 1815 was not identical to 1789 – significant changes had taken place. France was reduced again to a kingdom under Louis XVIII, roughly within its pre-Revolution frontiers.However, surrounding France were newly strengthened states (such as an enlarged Netherlands and Prussia) to prevent French aggressionCentral and Eastern Europe saw the rise of new powers like Prussia and Russia at the expense of formerly independent kingdoms like Poland. The Holy Roman Empire was gone, replaced by a German Confederation of fewer, larger states.Many smaller states were mediatized or merged into bigger units, reflecting Napoleon’s consolidations and the Congress’s desire for a stable order. Below is a country-by-country and regional breakdown of how Europe’s borders changed from 1789 (pre-French Revolution) to 1815 (post-Napoleonic order):FranceIn 1789, France was a major European kingdom with territories roughly bounded by the Atlantic, the English Channel, the Rhine River to the east, and the Pyrenees to the south.It did not control the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) or the west bank of the Rhine – those were annexed during the revolutionary wars in the 1790s.By 1815, France had been forced to retrocede all territories conquered after 1789, losing Belgium, Luxembourg, the Rhineland, Savoy, Nice, and other annexations.The Congress largely restored France to its 1792 borders (very close to 1789, with only minor tweaks).This meant France in 1815 was slightly smaller than in 1789 only in that it did not retain territories like Avignon or Savoy that it had annexed during the Revolution – it was essentially the same core France, but encircled by stronger neighbors to keep it in check.Politically, the difference was stark: 1789 France was an absolute monarchy about to face revolution; 1815 France was a constitutional monarchy under the restored Bourbons, after the rise and fall of Napoleon’s empire.In terms of influence, France in 1815 had lost the dominant position in continental affairs that revolutionary/Napoleonic France had temporarily gained; it was now cautiously included as a junior partner in the Concert of Europe rather than the continent’s hegemon.Great BritainGreat Britain (plus Ireland) saw relatively little change in its European borders between 1789 and 1815.In 1789, Great Britain was an island kingdom (the Kingdom of Great Britain, and a separate Kingdom of Ireland under the same crown), holding Gibraltar as a fortress in the south of Spain.By 1815, it had become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (after the 1801 Act of Union), but territorially it remained the same in Europe – an island nation off the northwest coast.The key differences were geopolitical: Britain had spent the intervening years fighting France and had vastly increased its overseas empire and naval supremacy.It gained strategic colonies and footholds (for example, Malta in the Mediterranean, and various colonial territories from defeated powers), but on the European map Britain did not acquire new land.One small exception often noted is that Britain obtained the island of Heligoland (from Denmark) in 1815, a tiny North Sea island, and confirmed its long-term control of Malta – these were strategic rather than significant “border changes.”Overall, from 1789 to 1815, Britain’s borders in Europe stayed constant, though its global power grew.Britain’s role in 1815 was as a guarantor of the peace; it had no interest in continental annexations, focusing instead on maintaining a balance so no single power (like Napoleonic France) could threaten the equilibrium again.Austria (Habsburg Monarchy)Austria in 1789 was the leading state of the Holy Roman Empire and a vast multi-national monarchy.The Austrian Habsburgs ruled over Austrian and Czech lands, Hungary, parts of Poland (Galicia from the 1772 partition), the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), and various Italian possessions (Milan/Lombardy and Tuscany were under Habsburg control, and the Emperor was also Grand Duke of Tuscany by family line).By 1815, Austria’s holdings had shifted eastward and southward, reflecting both losses and gains. During the Napoleonic Wars, Austria had lost Belgium and parts of Germany, and the Holy Roman Empire itself was dissolved in 1806.In 1815 Austria did not regain Belgium, but was compensated with extensive territory in Italy: it directly annexed Lombardy–Venetia (the rich Po Valley region).Thus, Austria’s focus moved to dominating the Italian peninsula rather than the Low Countries.In Germany, the Emperor Francis II had relinquished the title of Holy Roman Emperor, but as Francis I of the Austrian Empire he still presided over German affairs through the German Confederation. Austria retained its traditional hereditary lands (Austria, Bohemia, etc.) and the Kingdom of Hungary, as well as Galicia in Poland.It also gained the Dalmatian Coast (Illyrian Provinces) back from French control. However, Austria had to abandon claims to territories in southwest Germany.In summary, from 1789 to 1815 Austria lost its grip on the Netherlands and its formal supremacy in Germany, but gained new lands in Italy and emerged as the central guarantor of the new German political structure. Austria remained a great power, now oriented toward influence in Italy and Central-Eastern Europe rather than Western Europe.PrussiaPrussia underwent perhaps the most dramatic growth between 1789 and 1815.In 1789, the Kingdom of Prussia was a mid-sized European power with scattered territories: it ruled Brandenburg (around Berlin) and eastern territories in former Polish lands (having taken parts of Poland in the 1772 Partition), as well as territories along the Baltic (East Prussia) and some enclaves in western Germany (e.g. parts of Cleves and Guelders).It was strong but not yet dominant in Germany, still rivaled by Austria and hemmed in by the plethora of smaller states. By 1815, Prussia had greatly expanded and risen to the rank of a great power, largely due to the decisions at Vienna.Prussia gained extensive new lands in the west: the Congress awarded Prussia the Rhineland and Westphalia (including important cities like Cologne, Aachen, and Essen), which had been part of Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine.These western acquisitions were economically significant (rich in industry and population) and gave Prussia a permanent stake in western Germany. Prussia also received 40% of Saxony (the northern part of the Kingdom of Saxony) as punishment for Saxony’s alliance with Napoleon.In the north, Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania, connecting its territories along the Baltic Sea.In the east, Prussia regained the Polish territories it had lost in 1807; it took back Posen (Poznań) and the area around Thorn (Toruń) from the former Duchy of Warsaw, though it did not recover all of pre-1806 Prussian Poland (the bulk of the Duchy of Warsaw went to Russia).Comparing 1789 to 1815: Prussia in 1789 was fragmented and chiefly an eastern power, whereas Prussia in 1815 was larger and more consolidated, spanning from the French border in the west to close to Russia in the east.This set the stage for Prussia to become the core of a future united Germany.In short, Prussia’s borders expanded in all directions by 1815 – a huge shift from its size in 1789 – marking its rise at Austria’s side as a co-guarantor of Central Europe and a counterweight to France.RussiaThe Russian Empire in 1789 was already enormous, stretching from Poland to Siberia.In Europe, Russia’s western boundary in 1789 ran roughly along the Dnieper River and the eastern border of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Catherine the Great had taken Crimea from the Ottoman Empire in 1783 and a slice of Polish territory in 1772 (the First Partition), but the bulk of Poland, as well as Finland, were still outside Russian control in 1789.By 1815, Russia had moved its frontier westward considerably.During the intervening years, Russia participated in the Second and Third Partitions of Poland (1793 and 1795), wiping Poland off the map by 1795.Napoleon’s wars temporarily created the Duchy of Warsaw, but the Congress of Vienna gave most of that Polish duchy to Russia as the “Congress Kingdom of Poland” (a Russian-controlled Polish entity).Thus, Poland as an independent country did not exist in 1815, in contrast to 1789 when the Polish Commonwealth still lived (albeit under threat).Additionally, Russia had annexed Finland from Sweden in 1809, so by 1815 the Russian Empire bordered Scandinavia (Grand Duchy of Finland under the Russian Tsar).In the south, Russia had taken Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812, extending into the Balkans. Therefore, between 1789 and 1815, Russia’s European borders expanded west and south: it went from being just one of several powers in Poland to controlling the core of Poland, and it reached farther into the Black Sea region.Russia in 1815 was the preeminent military power on the continent – it had not been occupied by Napoleon (instead, it repelled him in 1812) and came out of the war with greater territory and prestige.In 1789, by contrast, Russia was powerful but more on the periphery of European affairs. By 1815, under Tsar Alexander I, Russia held a central role in European politics (championing the Holy Alliance) and its borders reflected this newfound influenceOther States and RegionsPoland:This is one of the most striking differences between 1789 and 1815. In 1789, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was an independent (if waning) state covering a vast area of Eastern Europe (though it had lost some territory in the first partition of 1772).By 1815, Poland had been partitioned out of political existence.After final partitions in the 1790s, Poland disappeared from the map in 1795. Napoleon’s creation of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807) gave a hope of Polish revival, but the Congress of Vienna did not fully restore Poland.Instead, most Polish lands went to Russia as the Congress Kingdom of Poland, a semi-autonomous kingdom in personal union with the Russian Empire.Prussia got the Grand Duchy of Posen (Poznań) in western Poland, and Austria kept Galicia (which it had held since the first partition).A small Free City of Cracow was established under joint oversight of the powers. In essence, where in 1789 Poland was a sovereign commonwealth, in 1815 it was sliced up among empires – Russia, Prussia, and Austria each controlled a portion.The Polish people would remain without an independent state until after World War I, making this a major change in the map of Europe.German States (Central Europe):Europe in 1789 still featured the Holy Roman Empire, with its labyrinth of 300+ states ranging from powerful kingdoms like Prussia and Bavaria to tiny prince-bishoprics and free cities.The Habsburg Emperor held a nominal overlordship, but real power was diffuse. By 1815, the Holy Roman Empire was gone – Napoleon had abolished it in 1806.In its place, German-speaking Central Europe was consolidated into far fewer states. The Congress of Vienna confirmed a German Confederation of 39 states.Many small medieval entities were mediatized or absorbed into larger neighbors. For example, Hanover (in personal union with Britain’s King) and Bavaria were enlarged with territory from ecclesiastical states or former imperial cities.The Kingdom of Saxony was reduced (with a large part given to Prussia as noted).Westphalia and other Napoleonic creations were dissolved, their lands mostly going to Prussia and Hanover. In 1789, one could travel from Paris to the Russian border passing through dozens of little German enclaves; in 1815, the same journey would traverse a handful of larger states.So, the borders in Germany became simpler and more streamlined post-1815. Austria and Prussia were the dominant players, but besides them there were now recognizable mid-sized kingdoms (Bavaria, Württemberg, Hanover, Saxony, etc.) instead of an incoherent jigsaw of tiny realms.This was a direct consequence of the French Revolutionary/Napoleonic era (which had consolidated Germany) and the decisions at Vienna to preserve some of that consolidation for practicality and balance.Italian Peninsula:In 1789, Italy was not a unified country but a collection of sovereign states: the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont-Savoy) in the northwest, the Habsburg-controlled Duchy of Milan and Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Republic of Venice (still independent until 1797), the Papal States in central Italy, the Kingdom of Naples (Sicily) in the south (under a cadet branch of Bourbons), plus smaller duchies like Modena, Parma, and the Republic of Genoa, etc.By 1815, the map of Italy had been rearranged by both Napoleon and the Congress. Napoleon had swept away Venice and many small states, and though the Congress mostly restored old rulers, it did not return to the exact 1789 setup.Venice, for instance, never reappeared as an independent republic – it was given to Austria (forming Lombardy-Venetia).The Kingdom of Sardinia was restored and actually enlarged – it got back Piedmont and Savoy and also was granted Genoa (to strengthen it).The Papal States were restored to the Pope after having been annexed by Napoleon.Naples and Sicily, which had been separate in 1789 (Sicily as a haven for the Bourbon king during Napoleon’s conquest of Naples), were unified again under King Ferdinand as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1815 (Bourbon restoration).Milan and Tuscany, which in 1789 were Habsburg possessions, came back under Austrian influence: Milan as part of direct Austrian rule (Lombardy) and Tuscany under an Austrian grand duke.Essentially, Italy in 1815 was carved up among a few major states: Austria dominated the north (Lombardy-Venetia), the House of Savoy ruled the northwest (Sardinia-Piedmont), the Pope in the center, and the Bourbons in the south – whereas in 1789 there were more independent entities (like Venice and Genoa) and less overt Austrian territorial presence.In both 1789 and 1815 Italy was fragmented, but the identity of some states and borders had changed. Notably, the concept of Italian unification had been kindled (there were nascent nationalist feelings by 1815, partly a reaction to Napoleonic rule), whereas in 1789 the idea of a unified Italy was politically dormant.Scandinavia:The Scandinavian political map shifted between 1789 and 1815 due to the Napoleonic Wars.In 1789, Denmark-Norway was a united dual kingdom (the King of Denmark also ruled Norway), and Sweden was an independent kingdom that still controlled Finland and had no union with Norway.By 1815, this had changed: Denmark lost Norway to Sweden as a result of the wars (Treaty of Kiel, 1814)Thus, in 1815 Sweden and Norway were joined in a personal union under the Swedish crown (the “United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway”)Meanwhile, Sweden itself had undergone change during the Napoleonic era: it lost Finland to Russia in 1809, so in 1815 Sweden’s eastern border was the Baltic Sea, with the new Russian Grand Duchy of Finland on the other side.Additionally, Sweden in 1815 was ruled by a Frenchman (Marshal Bernadotte, who became King Karl XIV Johan) – a result of Napoleonic intrigue – which contrasts with 1789 when Sweden was ruled by its native Gustav III.Denmark, having been on the losing side with Napoleon, was reduced in status after 1815, ruling only Denmark proper, Greenland, etc., and the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein (under personal union) but not Norway.In summary, from 1789 to 1815 Scandinavian borders changed such that Norway shifted from Danish to Swedish rule, and Sweden ceded Finland to Russia, greatly shrinking Swedish territory.The creation of the Sweden-Norway union in 1815 was a direct consequence of the Napoleonic upheavals; no such union existed in 1789.The Netherlands and Belgium:In 1789, the Low Countries were divided between the Dutch Republic (also known as the United Provinces) in the north and the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) in the south.The Prince of Orange led the Dutch Republic, while Belgium was under Habsburg Austrian rule. By 1815, this entire region was unified into the single Kingdom of the Netherlands.Napoleon had conquered both the Netherlands and Belgium (annexing them into France during his rule). After his defeat, the Congress of Vienna combined them and placed Prince William of Orange as King of a new, enlarged Netherlands.Thus, Belgium and Holland were one country in 1815, whereas in 1789 they were separate and under different rulers. The intent was to create a strong buffer state north of France.Culturally and politically this was a big change (Catholic Belgian provinces and Protestant Dutch had notable differences), and the union eventually failed in 1830 when Belgium revolted.But in terms of borders: 1789 had a border between the Dutch Republic and Austrian Netherlands; 1815 erased that border, making it all one kingdom stretching from the North Sea to the French frontier.Also, the Dutch Republic in 1789 still possessed territories that by 1815 had changed (the Dutch lost the Cape Colony and Ceylon to the British during the wars, though those are outside Europe).Internally, the government shifted from the oligarchic republic of 1789 to a monarchy in 1815.Switzerland:Swiss borders remained roughly similar from 1789 to 1815, but their status changed.In 1789, the old Swiss Confederation was a loose union of 13 cantons (and associated territories) with a neutral stance. Napoleon invaded and turned it into the Helvetic Republic (a centralized state) in 1798, then later a reconstructed Confederation in 1803 under French influence.By 1815, the Congress of Vienna re-established Switzerland’s autonomy and neutrality, adding additional territories (such as Geneva, Valais, and Neuchâtel) to the Confederation.The Swiss Confederation of 1815 had 22 cantons, compared to 13 cantons in 1789 (the new cantons were formerly subject lands or independent areas allied with the old Confederation).The crucial difference is that in 1815 the great powers guaranteed Swiss neutrality, whereas in 1789 Switzerland’s neutrality was traditional but not internationally guaranteed.Territorial adjustments were minor (mostly adding the new cantons), but politically Switzerland in 1815 was more secure and unified than the somewhat oligarchic patchwork of 1789.Spain and Portugal:The Iberian Peninsula’s borders did not change significantly between 1789 and 1815, but their political statuses did.In 1789, Spain was a stable Bourbon-ruled kingdom, and Portugal was under the Braganza dynasty, with both maintaining their long-standing borders.The French Revolution and Napoleon upheaved this stability: Napoleon invaded Spain (1808) and Portugal (1807), briefly placing his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain and causing the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil.By 1815, however, both countries were restored to their previous rulers and borders. Spain in 1815 had Ferdinand VII back on the throne, ruling the same Spanish territories (no land lost or gained in Europe compared to 1789).Portugal’s borders were also unchanged, with King João VI (who had been in Brazil) returning after Napoleon’s defeat. A minor territorial note: as mentioned, the town of Olivenza was taken by Spain from Portugal in 1801; the Congress of Vienna urged its return to Portugal, but Spain did not comply, so that small border adjustment remained disputed.Aside from that, the map of Iberia in 1815 looks like that of 1789. The big difference lies in the fact that 1789 Spain and Portugal were colonial superpowers with vast New World empires, whereas by 1815 the Spanish Empire was on the brink of losing its American colonies (independence movements were underway).This, however, was outside the European map proper. On the European map, Spain and Portugal’s borders were stable from 1789 to 1815 – what changed was that they went through occupation and turmoil in between, only to be restored by 1815 to roughly the status quo ante.Ottoman Empire and Balkans:From 1789 to 1815, the Ottoman Empire’s European boundaries receded slightly in the east. In 1789, the Ottomans controlled most of the Balkans (the map shows Ottoman suzerainty as far north as the Danube and west to the Adriatic in some areas).By 1815, the Ottoman Empire had lost some territory to Russia.Notably, the Ottomans ceded the Crimea and surrounding areas by 1783 and later the province of Bessarabia (Moldavia’s eastern part) to Russia in 1812.The Congress of Vienna did not directly involve the Ottomans (they were not part of the Napoleonic coalitions), but indirectly, Russian gains at Ottoman expense were part of the backdrop.The rest of the Balkans (Serbia, Greece, etc.) were still under Ottoman rule in 1815 (although Serbia had gained autonomous status by 1815 after a rebellion).Thus, on a broad view, Southeastern Europe saw the Ottomans slightly weaker in 1815 than in 1789 and Russia correspondingly more present on the Black Sea – but the core map of the Balkans remained Ottoman-dominated until later in the 19th century.In summary, Europe’s borders in 1815 differed markedly from 1789 primarily due to the collapse of old Poland, the consolidation of Germany and Italy into fewer states, the rise of new power centers (Prussia and Russia expanding), and the strategic creation of buffer states like the Netherlands and a Swedish-Norwegian union.The guiding principle in 1815 was restoring stability and dynastic legitimacy, which meant that although revolutionary conquests were rolled back (France lost everything it gained), Europe was not simply reset to 1789.Instead, the great powers crafted a new equilibrium with fewer political units and larger, stronger states to prevent another continent-wide conflagration.The differences in the map reflect the seismic impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon on almost every corner of Europe.European Borders: 1812 vs. 1815See: Map Of Napoleonic Europe In 1812 At The Peak Of French PowerThe contrast between 1812 (Napoleon’s empire at its zenith) and 1815 (post-Napoleonic restoration) is dramatic.In 1812, Napoleon dominated most of Europe, either directly or through dependent allies.The French Empire had annexed extensive territories and established client kingdoms, creating an unprecedented concentration of power in Europe.By 1815, this had been entirely undone: Napoleon’s empire was dismantled, and the map was redivided among the victorious Allies.Essentially, French hegemony in 1812 gave way to a restored balance of power in 1815. Below, we detail how the Napoleonic realm of 1812 was carved up and which states were restored or reshaped by 1815:France and the Napoleonic EmpireIn 1812, France under Napoleon was not just the pre-Revolutionary kingdom; it had expanded its direct territory far beyond.By that year, Napoleon had annexed the entire Iberian Peninsula north of the Ebro (Catalonia was under direct French rule), the whole of Belgium and the Netherlands, and much of western Germany into the French Empire.He also annexed parts of Italy (Rome and the Papal States, Tuscany, and the Illyrian Provinces on the Adriatic coast) into France.Moreover, areas like Switzerland and the Confederation of the Rhine (comprising most German states) and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) were essentially vassal or satellite states under Napoleon’s control.By comparison, in 1815 France had been forced back to its old boundaries – all the annexations were taken away.France was reduced to roughly its 1790 borders, confined largely to what is the modern French territory. Napoleon’s imperial titles (e.g. King of Italy) were forfeited, and all client republics and kingdoms he had established were dissolved or given back to their former dynasties.The Bourbon King Louis XVIII was installed on the throne, so France in 1815 was a nation-state monarchy again, no longer an expanding empire.This reversal was confirmed by the first Treaty of Paris (1814) and reinforced after Waterloo by the second Treaty of Paris in late 1815, which even imposed a minor border contraction and an indemnity on France due to Napoleon’s brief return.Great BritainFor Britain, the years 1812 to 1815 did not change its European holdings (as noted earlier, Britain had no continental territories except Gibraltar).In 1812, Britain stood as Napoleon’s staunch adversary, holding out in the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal and also fighting the War of 1812 against the United States overseas.By 1815, Britain emerged triumphant in Europe, having played a key role in Napoleon’s defeat (Wellington’s victory at Waterloo).Territorial outcomes for Britain in Europe remained minimal: Britain still just had Gibraltar and some Mediterranean islands (Malta, acquired during the war, which it kept).One change by 1815 was Britain’s acquisition of some small but strategic territories: for instance, the Ionian Islands (off Greece) were placed under British protection in 1815.But essentially, from 1812 to 1815, Britain’s map didn’t change, rather its status did – from embattled lone holdout to one of the victors shaping Europe.The British focus after 1815 was to maintain the balance and its naval dominance; it did not seek territory in defeated France or its former client states (aside from colonial gains).AustriaBetween 1812 and 1815, Austria went from being an unwilling ally of Napoleon to a leader in his defeat, and its territories were adjusted accordingly.In 1812, Austria had recently been defeated (in 1809) and forced into an alliance with Napoleon – Emperor Francis’s daughter had even married Napoleon.Austria in 1812 had temporarily ceded some lands: notably the Illyrian Provinces (the Adriatic coast, including much of modern Slovenia and Dalmatia) were under French rule after 1809.Austria had also lost direct influence in Germany and Italy due to Napoleon’s reorganization (though Austria still held its core and some Polish territory).By 1815, Austria was on the winning side and got back what it lost and more.The Illyrian Provinces were returned from France to Austrian control. Austria also gained new territories in Italy (the rich regions of Lombardy and Venetia, which in 1812 had been part of Napoleon’s Kingdom of Italy).However, Austria did not re-annex the former Austrian Netherlands or assert control west of the Rhine – those were gone for good.Instead, Austria’s gains by 1815 were to the south and east: northern Italy and consolidation of its influence in Central Europe.Another change: in 1812 Austria had no say in the Confederation of the Rhine; by 1815 that French-backed Confederation was gone, replaced by the German Confederation under Austria’s presidency.So Austria’s authority was restored in Germany (indirectly) and greatly enhanced in Italy by 1815, compared to its diminished position under Napoleon’s dominance in 1812PrussiaPrussia in 1812 had been drastically reduced by Napoleon.After defeats in 1806-1807, Prussia lost about half its territory (including much of Poland, lands west of the Elbe, etc.) and was forced into alliance with France.In 1812, Prussia was actually Napoleon’s reluctant ally and had to contribute troops to the invasion of Russia. The Prussian kingdom then was mostly confined to north-eastern Germany (Brandenburg, Silesia, East Prussia) with some small Rhenish possessions left.By 1815, Prussia had re-entered the war (in 1813) against Napoleon and as a victor at Vienna it received a bountiful reward. Prussia regained all it had lost and expanded significantly beyond its pre-Napoleonic size.As noted earlier, Prussia in 1815 got the northern Rhineland and Westphalia, annexed Swedish Pomerania, and took a large part of Saxony, as well as Posen in Poland.This was a monumental change from 1812, when none of these western territories were under Prussian control (they were either French client states or other kingdoms).In 1812, the French client Kingdom of Westphalia (ruled by Napoleon’s brother Jérôme) sat in the area of Hanover/Hesse-Westphalia – by 1815 Westphalia was gone and Prussia ruled much of that area.So, the difference is that Prussia was reborn and enlarged out of Napoleon’s downfall.The scattered, diminished Prussia of 1812 became a geographically broader and more powerful state by 1815, second only to Russia and Austria in land power.In summary, between 1812 and 1815 Prussia went from vassal to victor, with its borders redrawn to include key regions that had belonged to Napoleon’s empire or satellites.This illustrates how Napoleon’s dismantling directly paved the way for Prussia’s rise – something completely absent in 1812 when Napoleon was at his peak.RussiaIn 1812, Russia was both Napoleon’s adversary and – after the treaties of Tilsit (1807) – somewhat an uneasy ally (they had agreed to split influence in Europe, but by 1812 they were at war).Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812 failed disastrously, which became the turning point for his empire. Regarding borders: Russia in 1812 already held Finland (taken from Sweden) and Bessarabia, and it was poised defensively against Napoleon’s Grand Armée.By 1815, Russia’s territorial reach had actually increased, primarily through Poland.In 1812, the Duchy of Warsaw (Napoleon’s client Polish state) existed as a buffer; by 1815, most of that duchy was absorbed into the Russian Empire as the Congress Kingdom of Poland.This meant that where Napoleon in 1812 had a friendly Polish state on Russia’s border, in 1815 Russia itself moved its border to the west, into the heart of Poland.Also, with Napoleon gone, Russia’s influence spread across Europe – Russian armies had marched to Paris in 1814, and Tsar Alexander I was a leading voice at the Congress.So, while Russia’s formal borders changed only modestly (primarily the acquisition of most of Poland), its geopolitical power in 1815 was at a high.Another note: in 1812, Russia was at war with France and had ceded no territory in Europe to Napoleon (only temporarily evacuated some places); by 1815, Russia had not lost any European land at all – rather it gained.So from 1812 to 1815, Russia went from threatened to tremendously aggrandized, without the setbacks other powers had experienced earlier. This solidified Russia’s role as the leading continental land power post-1815.Restored or Reshaped States (Napoleon’s Empire Dismantled)Napoleon had installed his own family members on various European thrones and created new states dependent on him.All of these underwent major change by 1815:Spain:In 1812, Spain was partly under French control – Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte sat on the Spanish throne in Madrid, although a fierce guerrilla war (the Peninsular War) raged and the legitimate Bourbon king (Ferdinand VII) was in exile.By 1815, Napoleon’s influence was gone from the Iberian Peninsula. Ferdinand VII was restored as King of Spain, reclaiming the throne and re-establishing Spain as an independent kingdom.The French troops had been expelled (with British and Portuguese help) by 1814.Thus, a Bonaparte kingdom in 1812 became a Bourbon-ruled nation again by 1815. Spain’s borders in Europe were unchanged, but its government and alignment flipped back to the pre-Napoleonic dynasty. (However, Spain was weakened and soon faced uprisings in its American colonies, a legacy of the instability during Joseph’s rule.)Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples):In 1812, southern Italy (the Kingdom of Naples) was under Joachim Murat, Napoleon’s brother-in-law, who Napoleon had made King of Naples after deposing the Bourbon royal family.Murat initially stayed in power even after Napoleon’s first defeat, but during the Hundred Days (1815) he rashly supported Napoleon again, leading to his downfall.By the end of 1815, King Ferdinand I (Bourbon) was restored to Naples, uniting it with Sicily again as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.So, Murat’s Napoleonic regime (1812) was replaced by the old Bourbon monarchy (1815). Naples’ borders remained the same, but its ruler changed – a clear example of Vienna’s policy of legitimacy.Italy (Northern States):In 1812, Northern and Central Italy had been dominated by Napoleon.He was the King of Italy (a title for the territory roughly covering Lombardy, Venetia, and parts of central Italy that comprised the “Kingdom of Italy” under his direct rule).He had also annexed the Papal States and placed his relatives on other thrones (e.g. his sister Elisa ruled Tuscany for a time). By 1815, all these Napoleonic arrangements were undone. The Kingdom of Italy was dissolved; Lombardy and Venetia went to Austria, as noted.The Pope returned to Rome to govern the Papal States.Various duchies (Parma, Modena, Tuscany) were given back to their former dynastic rulers (for instance, Napoleon’s second wife Marie Louise was given Parma, but as a Habsburg archduchess rather than a Napoleonic imposition).Genoa, which had been annexed to France, was given to Piedmont-Sardinia.In short, between 1812 and 1815 the entire political structure of Italy was reversed to traditional rulers – from Napoleonic family members and republics back to kings, dukes, and popes of the old order.The map of Italy in 1815 might superficially resemble that of 1790 more than 1810, but with the notable difference that Austria now directly controlled the northeast (something Napoleon had prevented by holding it himself) and that no independent Venice or Genoa existed.So Napoleon’s Italian empire was dismantled, and the Italian peninsula was fragmented once again under Austrian oversight and Bourbon/Savoyard rule.Confederation of the Rhine (German States) and Kingdom of Westphalia:In 1812, almost all the German states (except Prussia and Austria) were organized into the Confederation of the Rhine, essentially a French protectorate.Napoleon was its “Protector,” and it provided troops for his armies.He had also created the Kingdom of Westphalia in northern Germany for his brother Jérôme, and enlarged Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, etc., as client allies.After Napoleon’s defeat, the Confederation of the Rhine collapsed as German princes defected to the Allies in 1813. By 1815, it was replaced by the German Confederation of 39 states under Austrian leadership.The Kingdom of Westphalia was abolished – its territory was divided mainly between Prussia (which took Westphalia and surrounding areas) and the Kingdom of Hanover (which was restored and enlarged). Hanover, which in 1812 had been part of Westphalia, was re-established in 1815 as a kingdom in personal union with Britain, regaining sovereignty.Saxony, which in 1812 was a client ally of Napoleon (and its king ruled the Duchy of Warsaw), in 1815 was punished by losing a chunk of territory to Prussia.So, the German world went from being a French-dominated federation (1812) to a largely independent patchwork under Austrian/Prussian influence (1815).Many smaller rulers got their thrones back (the Elector of Hesse, the Duke of Brunswick, etc., who had been deposed by Napoleon) – a clear restoration.The difference is illustrated by the military situation: in 1812, German troops marched with Napoleon to Russia; in 1815, German troops (Prussian, Austrian, etc.) marched against Napoleon at Waterloo. Politically, Napoleon’s kin no longer ruled any German state by 1815.Poland (Duchy of Warsaw):As mentioned, Napoleon had recreated a Polish state in 1807 – the Duchy of Warsaw – under his ally, the King of Saxony.In 1812, this Duchy was allied with Napoleon and served as a French satellite (Polish forces fought with Napoleon in Russia). In 1815, the duchy was gone. The bulk of it became the Congress Kingdom of Poland under Tsar Alexander (who took the title King of Poland).Prussia and Austria took smaller portions (Posen to Prussia, Galicia already with Austria, Krakow as a small free city).Thus, the Polish political entity that existed in 1812 thanks to Napoleon was partitioned once again in 1815, effectively returning Poland to the control of the partitioning powers (albeit now with a nominal “kingdom” under Russia).In short, Napoleon’s Polish client state was dismantled and divided among the victors, reversing the temporary revival of Polish autonomy that the Duchy of Warsaw represented.Netherlands and Belgium:Napoleon had annexed the entire region of the Netherlands and Belgium directly into France by 1812 (the Kingdom of Holland, which he created for his brother Louis, had been absorbed into France in 1810).In 1812, there was no independent Dutch state – it was French territory. By 1815, as discussed, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was established, fully sovereign under the House of Orange.This meant that a French imperial province (1812) became an independent kingdom (1815). The Austrian Netherlands, which in 1812 was also French territory (the Département de la Dyle, etc.), similarly became part of that new Dutch Kingdom.This is a stark change: effectively Napoleon’s rule was ejected from the Low Countries, and a new state was created where none existed in 1812. The new kingdom was larger than the old Dutch Republic and designed specifically to be a bulwark against France.Scandinavia:While not under Napoleon’s rule, Scandinavia was affected by his defeat.In 1812, Denmark was still in possession of Norway (and was allied to Napoleon), and Sweden, under Bernadotte (who by 1812 had switched to the Allied side), was aiming to get Norway as compensation for the loss of Finland to Russia.By 1815, as arranged first in 1814, Norway was in union with Sweden.The Danish king had ceded Norway, ending a centuries-old union.So the map change from 1812: Norway’s allegiance flipped – in 1812 Norway effectively was linked to a French ally (Denmark); in 1815 Norway was joined with Sweden, one of the Coalition victors.This realignment deprived France of any Scandinavian ally and rewarded Sweden for fighting Napoleon. Meanwhile, Sweden’s border with Russia (losing Finland) was already settled in 1809, but by 1815 Sweden had no threat from France and had gained Norway.Denmark, significantly smaller, was now isolated.Thus, Napoleonic influence in northern Europe (which had been secured via Denmark and a friendly stance of Sweden until 1810) was gone by 1815, replaced by a new order in which Britain, Russia, and Prussia had more influence in the north, and Sweden-Norway stood as a unified block.Switzerland:In 1812, Switzerland (the Helvetic Confederation) was effectively a client state of France – while nominally independent after 1803, it was under French influence and its neutrality had been violated by both French and Allied armies.By 1815, Switzerland was explicitly neutral and independent, guaranteed by the powers.Napoleon’s garrisons were withdrawn.The change isn’t so much a border change (though three new cantons were added in 1815 as mentioned) as a status change: from satellite in 1812 to internationally recognized neutral nation in 1815.Other Napoleonic client changes:Napoleon had created or influenced other entities – the Confederation of Switzerland (Helvetic Republic), the Illyrian Provinces (direct French rule over Slovenia/Croatia coast), the Grand Duchy of Berg, etc.By 1815, all of these were gone or given to new owners.The Illyrian Provinces in 1812 were French; in 1815 they were Austrian.The Grand Duchy of Berg (a Napoleonic creation in Westphalia) in 1812 was ruled by Napoleon’s brother-in-law; in 1815 it was absorbed into Prussian and other German territories.In essence, every border drawn or redrawn by Napoleon was reversed: Europe’s map in 1815 was nearly a clean slate from his empire.To summarize the 1812 vs. 1815 comparison: Napoleon’s empire was carved up and distributed among the victorious powers and restored monarchs. France’s overreach was checked by reducing France to its old size.The vacuum left by Napoleon’s collapsed empire was filled by strengthened or new states designed to keep a lasting peace.The Congress of Vienna explicitly sought to “dissolve the Napoleonic world” and restore the balance, which meant undoing Napoleon’s territorial arrangements.By 1815, “legitimate kings” were back on their thrones (Bourbons in France and Spain, Pope in Rome, Habsburgs in Austria and Tuscany, etc.) and new unions were formed (Sweden-Norway, Netherlands) to fortify Europe against any future revolutionary regime.The “height of Napoleon’s power” in 1812 saw almost a unipolar Europe under French dominance; 1815 restored a multipolar Europe with a concert of great powers and a patchwork of independent nations.The borders drawn in 1815 endured, with some adjustments, for many decades, whereas Napoleon’s 1812 map was fleeting.The transformation from 1812 to 1815 is essentially the story of Europe’s liberation and restoration – the continent was reconfigured from a French imperial system back to a system of sovereign states forming a balance of powerOther Maps In this series:Map Of Napoleonic Europe In 1812 At The Peak Of French PowerSources:en.wikipedia.orgbritannica.comcourses.lumenlearning.comcourses.lumenlearning.comen.wikipedia.org