Water is essential for life on earth, and access to safe and clean drinking water is a United Nations-declared human right. But water resources across the globe are under unprecedented pressure with growing demand, degrading water quality, and depleting available resources. Against this backdrop, adjusting water governance to the needs of a changing climate has become imperative. In India, some of the recent measures to address the water crisis include the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and other technologies to address the water supply issue, alongside renewed attention to traditional systems like ‘baravs’ (stepwells). The urgency of such efforts is underscored by a recent report published by United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), which termed the current global condition as ‘Water Bankruptcy’. This is a distinct post-crisis state where the terms ‘water stress’ and ‘water crisis’ are no longer adequate, as withdrawal in many basins has exceeded their renewable replenishment levels. Water crisis and food securityOnly 0.5 per cent of the total water available on Earth is readily available and usable freshwater. Agriculture uses 70 per cent of this water, followed by industrial use and domestic consumption. However, during the last couple of decades, domestic water demand has been increasing due to rapid urbanisation and the expansion of cities.Nearly half of the global population is experiencing at least one month of water shortage every year, and half of them are facing ‘extremely high’ water stress. In the last 50 years, the world has lost roughly 410 million hectares of natural wetlands (almost equal in size to the total area of the European Union) and the loss of ecosystem services worth over US$5.1 trillion.Must Read | UPSC Key: West Asia turmoil, Carney lands in Delhi, and Strait of HormuzMore than half of the global food-producing regions are witnessing declining surface and groundwater resources. This led to poor soil moisture retention, salinity, desertification, and overall degradation of very vital agricultural lands, which have consequences for global food security. The over-extraction of groundwater is causing land subsidence in many regions, affecting almost 5% of the global land area. Story continues below this adImpact on livelihoods, healthCurrently, about 2 billion people depend on mountain glaciers and seasonal snowmelt for their drinking, irrigational and hydro-electricity generation needs. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reported the largest glacier mass loss in the last 50 years, producing 600 gigatons of water. This increased cryospheric loss is a major contributor to sea-level rise, which, according to the IPCC, is about 20 cm higher than in 1900.Climate change-driven extreme weather events are becoming more frequent and severe. Since 2000, Asia has witnessed the most flood-related deaths and economic losses, while Africa has registered the most drought-related deaths. In addition, issues related to water are central to socio-economic development and gender equity, as access to water affects livelihood, health, as well as the distribution of unpaid care work in many societies. To accelerate global efforts for water resource conservation, the United Nations declared 2018-2028 as the International Decade for Action “Water for Sustainable Development”. India’s surface water statusThe amount of surface water depends on the processes of precipitation, evaporation and subsurface seepage. Temporal variability and uneven spatial distribution of precipitation lead to flooding or drought-like conditions. Thus, surface water availability in a particular geography depends upon the precipitation frequency and intensity, storage capacity (ponds, lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs), mean temperature and rate of evaporation, permeability of the soil, runoff characteristics of the land, etc.Story continues below this adMore than two-thirds of India’s water comes from three transboundary, Himalayan river systems of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra. The Central Water Commission estimated average water availability at about 2116 BCM over 38 years (1985-2023), with Brahmaputra (592.32 BCM), Ganga (581.75 BCM), and Godavari basins (129.17 BCM) contributing the most, respectively. India’s first census of water bodies, released by the Ministry of Jal Shakti (2023), counted a total of 24,24,540 water bodies, of which 97.1 per cent are in rural areas. However, only 3.1 per cent of water bodies have a water spread area of more than 5 hectares, and merely 12.7 per cent have more than 10,000 cubic meters of storage capacity. Their spatial distribution shows West Bengal is leading in the number of ponds and reservoirs, whereas Andhra Pradesh has the highest number of tanks, Tamil Nadu has the highest number of lakes, and Maharashtra is the leading state for water conservation schemes. Don't Miss | Why India’s rice production surge raises concerns over food security, sustainabilityAccording to the Falkenmark Index, a region with per capita annual renewable water below 1700 m3 is considered under ‘water stress’, and if it further falls below 1000 m3, it will be chronic ‘water scarcity’. And as per a report by NITI Aayog, India’s per capita water is projected to be at 1140m3 by 2050. About 820 million people have close to or lower than 1000m3 per capita water availability, putting pressure particularly on Indian cities.Story continues below this adCities facing ‘Day Zero’ like situationRapid unplanned urbanisation, encroachment of existing water bodies, extreme heat, and water shortages have become a recurring annual crisis. Shimla (2018), Chennai (2019) and recently Bengaluru (2024), all have faced ‘Day Zero’ like situations. Chennai faced a severe water crisis in 2019. That year, the city did not receive any rain for almost 200 days. Four major reservoirs, Red Hills, Cholavaram, Poondi, and Chembarambakkam, which contributed 60 per cent of the city’s needs, remained with less than 1 per cent of their original capacity. Over the years, 2104 of the total 6,000 lakes and reservoirs that once existed in Chennai and neighbouring Kancheepuram and Tiruvallur – also known as the ‘Yeri (lake in Tamil) districts – have disappeared. Delhi also faces different but serious water-related problems. The city has a demand-supply gap of about 344 million gallons a day (mgd). About half of the city’s water is non-revenue water (NRW), which never reaches the household due to leaks, illegal connections, ageing infrastructure, poor maintenance, capacity constraints, etc. Story continues below this adAbout 70 per cent of India’s surface water is contaminated. However, water is a recyclable resource and can be reused after proper treatment. Also Read | Why decarbonising steel industry is economic and environmental necessity for IndiaNeed for integrated global and national responseGlobal water governance has been focused on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). Sustainable Development Goal 6 also talks about ensuring safe drinking water and sanitation for all by 2030. But there is an urgent need to broaden the scope of global discussions and address issues of groundwater depletion, water quality degradation, ecological collapse, agricultural overuse, desertification, and transboundary issues. The recent developments in South Asian hydro-politics, such as China’s mega dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) and the expiration of the Ganga Water Treaty this year, will have their impacts. The upcoming UN water conference 2026, co-hosted by the UAE and Senegal, has proposed ‘Water in Multilateral Processes’ and ‘Water for Cooperation’ as critical thematic areas for deliberation. At the national level, there is a need for a climate-resilient water governance approach, including integrated inter-state basin management, data transparency, and monitoring of ecological health. Indian cities require water budgeting with investment in sponge-city infrastructure, which includes more green spaces, permeable buildings, rainwater storage facilities and recharging their aquifers. Adjusting water governance to the needs of a changing climate can only help ensure water security for India and the world. Story continues below this adPost read questionsDiscuss how climate change-induced alterations in the cryosphere and monsoon patterns are affecting surface and groundwater availability in India.Water scarcity is as much a social issue as it is a hydrological one. Discuss with reference to gender and livelihoods.Do urban floods and ‘Day Zero’ situations reflect deeper governance failures rather than mere climatic variability? Comment.How can sponge-city infrastructure help Indian cities address the twin challenges of floods and water scarcity?Story continues below this adCritically examine the limitations of the current global water governance framework. Why is there a need to move beyond a WASH-centric approach?(Abhinav Rai is a Doctoral candidate at the Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi.)Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with ashiya.parveen@indianexpress.com.Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for February 2026. Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week.Story continues below this adStay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.