IntroductionWith the widespread use of streaming platforms such as Netflix, Disney+, Apple TV+, and others, viewers have greater access to series in languages from all over the world. Significantly, this results in a greater familiarity with diverse cultures and languages thanks to Audio-visual translation (AVT). AVT describes the process of making foreign language media available to audiences via strategies such as subtitling, dubbing, and audio description (Cintas et al., 2008; Chiaro, 2009; Georgakopoulou, 2009; Debbas et al., 2020; Baños et al., 2025). Luyken and Herbst (1991:39) define subtitles as “condensed written translations of original dialogue which appear as lines of text, usually positioned towards the foot of the screen”. One of the primary benefits of subtitling is that it preserves the original soundtrack, enabling viewers to interact with the storyline and the characters in the show’s original language.Yet, subtitling is a complex process with numerous constraints that can impact the subtitler’s performance and output. Spoken language is often the most effective method of communicating across cultures. Typically, speech conveys stress, tonality, and rhythm more clearly and efficiently than written language. This presents a challenge for subtitlers, who must convey the complexity of spoken language through written language. This challenge echoes Parmiggiani’s argument (2002) that the conversion of spoken content into written form may alter its pragmatic features, as informal and spontaneous speech tends to become more formal and stylized in the process. From a technical perspective, space and reading speeds also pose a significant constraint for subtitlers. While subtitles must fit written language within a limited amount of space at one time, subtitlers must react accordingly and perform extensive condensations of speech, often at the expense of lexical meaning (Tveit, 2005). Luyken et al.’s (1991) observation that reading speeds hover between 150 and 180 words per minute does not invalidate the fact that complex subtitles require more reading time, and thus, must remain on screen longer.Aside from these traditional constraints, significant pragmatic challenges demand attention in AVT. According to Díaz-Cintas and Remael (2014), “[t]ranslating audiovisual content of multimodal materials into textual frames that are placed on the lower part of the screen is constrained due to the synchrony requirements of subtitles with image, speech and sound.” (8-9) This, in turn, intensifies the subtitler’s task while facilitating the viewers’ understanding of the source material, which goes beyond language to include images, sounds, and accents. Eventually, these challenges highlight the need to consider visual and multimodal environments while synchronizing the subtitling to its source content, as focusing solely on language and cultural nuances can suppress other pragmatic perspectives necessary for conveying meaning.A recent article by Valdeón (2022) identifies streaming platforms as key contributors to the proliferation of audiovisual translation via subtitling, dubbing, and voice-over. Unlike other translation modes, subtitling can interpret the original audio track at the bottom of the screen and translate written elements in the target language. However, the prevalence of streaming platforms in the age of digital marketing invites new forms of audiovisual translation, which blur the line between professional and commercial translation. Baños and Díaz-Cintas (2023) investigate the landscape of streaming platforms, noting a substantial growth in fan translation (for anime series), amateur translation, and crowdsourced or collaborative translation (for TED talks). In response to the workflow of audiovisual content on streaming platforms, Baños and Díaz-Cintas (2023) emphasize the need to investigate the ethical stance of profit-driven platforms, considering the impact of volunteer interpreters on these platforms. Although it is worth mentioning that their article has not associated Netflix with volunteer labor, they suggest broader implications for the ethical stance of Netflix subtitlers.Transitioning from the Western digital market, Arab television channels began using subtitles in the early 1990s when satellites first broadcast foreign media (Gamal, 2008). Digital platforms now lead the way in producing Arabic shows with subtitles for non-Arabic audiences. Haddad and Dhoest (2021: 1) argue that “[t]he arrival of Netflix in the Arab world was transformational,” as it presented a whole new form of visual content and conceptual themes. In 2019, Netflix paved its way into the Jordanian market with its first show, Jinn, produced in Jordanian colloquial language. Jinn was followed by AlRawabi School for Girls in 2021, a mini-series that tackles sensitive issues, such as the effect of bullying and honor crimes on teenage students. The show returned in 2024 with a second season, focusing on different issues faced by female teenage students, which include blackmail and eating disorders. Due to Netflix’s resistance to censorship, the first and second seasons were able to address critical topics through a realistic portrayal of teen life, which is often avoided for fear of social judgment. While AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2 sparked controversy, it raised public awareness of the unique issues and pressures facing teens across different levels of social, financial, and educational status. An English-subtitled version of AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2 prompts speculation about the degree to which the mini-series has been modified via subtitling. Indeed, the viral topics addressed in AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2 posed subtitling challenges from the outset.Remarkably, Jordanian Netflix shows have all been produced in Jordanian colloquial language. The use of cultural expressions in AlRawabi School for Girls poses a significant challenge for subtitlers in the context of AVT. Considering that Netflix’s production of Jordanian shows has always faced backlash in Jordan due to the platform’s policy against censorship, this study analyzes how sensitive cultural terminology was handled in the most recent season of the show. In our current media ecology, social meaning requires consideration of factors like body language, facial expressions, and gestures, not just language. Multimodal analysis demonstrates that translation is only part of the product’s various global spread factors. Therefore, the other focus of this study is the interplay between the subtitles and other multimodal elements employed in the show, namely linguistic, auditory, spatial, and visual techniques. These elements facilitate the viewer’s absorption of the culture and the storyline alongside the show’s verbal content. Due to the symbiotic nature of verbal and multimodal content in television, it is essential to analyze the subtitles within the audio-visual context of the show. This backdrop gives rise to three guiding research questions (1) how multimodal elements convey meaning in AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2, (2) the challenges Netflix subtitlers face in translating Jordanian cultural expressions into English, and (3) the strategies used to address these translation challenges.The importance of this study stems from the recent debut of Netflix in the Arab world and the relative lack of research on Netflix subtitling practices from Arabic to English. Similarly, little multimodal analysis has examined shows in translation at the representational, interactive, and compositional levels. This study analyzes the relationship between verbal and non-verbal elements in the source text and the English subtitles. A reinforced relationship manifests when non-verbal elements repeat verbal information (i.e., when the subtitling reaffirms the same information presented by visual and auditory elements such as the tone, figure behavior, volume, and facial expressions). Complementary relationships form when viewers need these audiovisual elements to understand verbal information. On the other hand, a contradictory relationship appears when audiovisual elements provide information that contradicts the spoken text, while parallel relationships occur in situations where the audiovisual environment does not align with the verbal content of the source dialogue and target subtitles. Notably, the visual environment in contradictory and parallel relationships does not synchronize with spoken or written language.Despite the growing interest in audiovisual translation of Arabic media, there remains a dearth of research specific to multimodal elements in Jordanian shows. While previous studies address the challenges of AVT in Arabic media or the translation strategies used to handle these challenges, they typically analyze language without reference to the visual context. This approach to AVT is inadequate, as viewers do not read subtitles in a vacuum; they are anchored in and informed by multimodal elements, which play a pragmatic role in conveying meaning. Ultimately, the present study endeavors to fill this gap in research by analyzing how multimodal elements facilitate anglophone viewers’ comprehension of plot and Jordanian culture in an Arabic mini-series.Review of related literatureStreaming subtitled foreign shows facilitates the interconnection of language and culture. While Gottlieb (2004) acknowledges that subtitling plays an essential role in language acquisition by improving a viewer’s English skills, he also emphasizes the social and political role of subtitling. In his view, this contributes to reinforcing the global dominance of English. Commenting on the significance of subtitling and its impact on cross-cultural exchange, Cornin (2006) considers subtitling as a medium of cultural transfer that can introduce new concepts and products to audiences across different cultures, languages, and beliefs. Furthermore, he argues that this exchange allows less popular cultures and lifestyles to surface and gain global recognition. A review of the existing literature on subtitling can be consolidated by identifying studies that analyze how sensitive terms are translated and studies that analyze the integration of multimodal elements and language.Subtitling sensitive termsNetflix productions are accused of being outrageous, shocking, and even offensive in the Arab world, allegedly violating the forbidden trinity of religion, sex, and politics. This frank discussion of taboo topics has earned Netflix criticism and recognition (The Independent, 2022). The definition and identification of taboo topics or language vary from one culture to another and even from one person to another. Identifying sensitive terms, therefore, is not an easy decision for researchers to make.Taboo language is not merely the habitual banning of a specific category of speech; it is the consequence of social restrictions aimed at regulating member behavior that is deemed harmful, irresponsible, or dangerous. Such behavior may include interactions with spiritual, powerful, or dangerous agents (Allan and Burridge, 2006). Swearing is a form of taboo language and a natural part of everyday speech, yet it poses a challenge for translators due to cultural variations. In the context of subtitling taboo language, Sari (2019) argues that this has always been a controversial issue in translation. Transferring cultural meaning, despite its sensitivity, is critical to avoid misinterpretation. Subtitles must also match the speaker’s tone, whether it be angry, flirtatious, or sarcastic, to preserve the integrity of the original. While faithfulness is preferred, situations may call for translators to tone down expressions that may be uncomfortable for viewers in conservative societies. Therefore, translators must find a middle ground where the reader can simultaneously digest the written text and grasp the intended meaning.A specific example of taboo subtitling is found in Al-Zgoul and Al-Salman’s (2022) study of subtitling strategies in the film Bad Boys. The authors analyze the strategies used by fandubbers to address the film’s culture-specific expressions and taboo language. Al-Zgoul and Al-Salman find that the fandubbed subtitles used seven different translation strategies, most notably omission (37%), transposition (29%), and explication (25%). The study concludes that fandubbers often do not follow specific standards, resulting in inappropriate translation strategy use.In response to the importance of ensuring appropriate subtitling strategies, De Rosa (2024) explains that the process of translating sensitive content requires a specific set of skills and considerations. In subtitling, the use of euphemism and other mitigating strategies to tone down the harshness of taboo might receive criticism, while other literal subtitling productions might be praised for their accuracy of translations. Hawel (2019) emphasizes that when translating American films, translators often employ omission or softening techniques to reduce the impact of vulgar language. However, some translators opt for literal translation to evoke the same emotions in viewers. Translating taboo content requires a delicate balance between appropriate translation strategies, audience expectations, social restrictions, anticipated viewer reactions, and reviewer guidelines (Hjort, 2009 & Simms, 1997).Scholars like Alsharhan (2020) have studied Netflix’s anti-censorship subtitling policy and their translation techniques, concluding that translators frequently rely on euphemism and softening despite the company’s policy against censorship. He further adds that the Arab world operates within its conventions and rules; therefore, interpreters apply euphemisms in their translation process. Based on Alsharhan’s estimates, nearly fifty percent of taboo terms used in Netflix shows are toned down when translated into Arabic. There appears to be consensus among scholars on the effectiveness of balancing translation perspectives, considering both local factors embedded within the text and global factors related to the target audience and subtitling platforms.Multimedia discourse StudiesWith the rise of multimedia technology and programming, social media and streaming platforms have incentivized the use of visual and audio modes as the primary vehicle for sharing news and entertainment. Given this shift, Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996) assert that meaning is not always communicated through language, but also through images, gestures, posture, and other non-verbal elements. They add that these modes should receive equal attention from researchers, as they are vital supplements to the meaning-making process. Gambier (2006:6) follows this line of thought, asserting that “No text is, strictly speaking, monomodal. Traditional texts, hypertexts, and screen texts combine different semiotic resources. Films and TV programs co-deploy gesture, gaze, movement, visual images, sound, colors, proxemics, oral and written language, and so on”. Echoing these scholars, Lui (2011:213) emphasizes that multimedia translation requires a translator to “juggle all the visual elements meant to accompany, illustrate and amplify the message carried in the two languages.”From a linguistic perspective, Chen and Liu’s (2014) linguistic and non-linguistic analyses of Life of Pi include systemic-functional grammar, visual grammar, audial analysis, and laws of emotion to investigate the viewer’s interaction with the movie. Their multimodal discourse analysis reveals that music provides the audience with a comprehensive appreciation of the movie’s content. They further conclude that visual, non-visual, and audial elements combine to provide a deeper understanding of the film’s complex character relationships. Their visual analysis of the film demonstrates how language and visuals serve complementary roles in informing the emotional reactions of audience members. Their study demonstrates that multimodal discourse analysis supports research into media such as film, TV series, and music videos, where the integration between language, imagery, and sound is always at play, facilitating the transmission of intended social meanings behind utterances to effectively reach the target audience.While existing research has addressed subtitling and its challenges, there is a dearth of studies on the strong association between multimodality and translation. In “Strategies in Subtitling Jordanian Dialect on Netflix: A Case Study of AlRawabi School for Girls,” Al-Harahsheh, Malkawi, and Al-Motlak (2025) examine the translation of Jordanian dialect in the first season of Al-Rawabi School for Girls. Their analysis reveals that most examples conveyed the original intent, albeit with a significant loss of cultural context from the source language. The study further concludes that Netflix subtitlers use a target-oriented translation that prevents the target audience from experiencing the distinctive cultural features of the Jordanian dialect. Although their study analyzes samples from Al-Rawabi School for Girls, it lacks a multimodal analysis that would account for the critical role of verbal and non-verbal modes in conveying meaning in the subtitling process.This study differs from previous research in several key respects, providing a comprehensive analysis of both non-verbal and verbal elements. At the representational level, it examines the setting and circumstances of each scene. At the compositional level, it explores the relationships between characters, specifically their behavior, tone, volume, and other dynamics. The interactive level describes the relationship between different modes. Together, the following analysis of these levels reveals four types of intermodal relations in translation: complementary, reinforced, parallel, and contradictory. Thus, this study investigates the strategies used by translators to address cultural nuances in Alrawabi School for Girls, while also highlighting the importance of multimodal elements in reflecting Jordanian culture.MethodologySeries overviewAlRawabi School for Girls is set in an elite school for girls in Amman, Jordan, where issues of class, gender, friendship, social media, romance, revenge, bullying, blackmailing, going viral, and other teenage complexities are explored. The show begins with a tender-hearted girl named Sarah from a middle-class family who dreams of online popularity. Sarah’s friend, Nadeen, tries to warn her against befriending Tasneem, one of the school’s “bad girls”. Sarah’s dangerous quest for popularity begins when she accepts a blackmailer’s request to send him an intimate video. A schoolteacher, Miss Abeer, catches Sarah trying to sneak out of school to meet her anonymous blackmailer. A bully who studies at the same school as Sarah’s little brother, Jawad, posts the scandalous video of her, which goes viral. Observing in silence, Shams, another schoolgirl, features Nadeen’s dangerous behavior as part of her filmmaking project.Data collection and analytical proceduresThis study adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the English subtitling of cultural expressions in AlRawabi School for Girls (Season 2). The following procedures were used to collect and interpret data:1.The authors watched all six episodes of AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2, which ranged from 51 to 71 minutes in length.2.The authors manually recorded the Arabic script and English subtitles of 50 examples from the show. Examples were selected based on their cultural significance and the degree of challenge posed to translators. The selection process emphasizes the variety of Jordanian cultural expressions used by teenagers in the show and the pragmatic functions of these examples. These expressions are culturally sensitive because they reflect issues scarcely portrayed in Arabic media. To mitigate any bias, examples have been selected from all six episodes, each synchronized with all representative categories in the multimodal framework. The relationships between the original dialogue and English subtitles are also analyzed in the context of non-verbal elements. This procedure ensures that the examples reflect the overall pattern of the data and avoid selection bias.3.The English subtitles were compared against the original Arabic dialogue, providing literal translations where necessary.4.The examples were sorted into ten categories according to the translation strategies suggested by Gottlieb (1992): subtitling, expansion, paraphrase, transfer, imitation, transcription, dislocation, decimation, deletion, and resignation.5.To account for the significance of multimodal elements, screenshots of each example were recorded to demonstrate the three different levels of interaction: representational, interactive, and compositional. These levels provide a comprehensive description of character behavior, facial expression, volume, tone, makeup, clothing, setting, body language, camera angles, and interpersonal relationships. Screenshots were captured directly from Netflix’s official website using tools provided by the Google Chrome web browser.6.Finally, the authors analyzed the translations at the representational, interactive, and compositional levels. The relation between the non-verbal elements and the original dialogue was then compared to the relation between the non-verbal elements and the subtitles.The table below shows the multimodal elements used in this study: (Table 1)Table 1 Multimodal Transcription.Full size tableIn this study, the researchers utilized a multimodal framework for analyzing subtitles introduced by Siwen Lu (2024) and informed by Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). This framework incorporates the three metafunctions identified by Kress and Leeuwen (2006) and the classification of intermodal relationships outlined by Nikolajeva and Scott (2000), as illustrated in Fig. 1.Fig. 1The SFL-informed Multimodal Framework.Full size imageThe intermodal relationships presented by Nikolajeva and Scott (2000) are explained as follows:1.Complementary relationships exist when the meaning expressed using one or more elements in a mode gives information about other elements. In other words, the full meaning cannot be conveyed unless multiple elements are available to the viewer.2.Parallel relationships occur when the elements in modes do not construct a specific joint meaning. Thus, the information presented by these elements is independent of other information provided by the situation. This type of relationship typically occurs when words speak for themselves without other cues.3.Reinforced relationships arise when the same information provided by one or more modal elements is repeated in another element, reinforcing viewers’ comprehension of meaning. Put simply, spoken words convey the same information as tone, body language, volume, and facial expressions.4.Contradictory relationships simply describe a situation where one of the elements provides information that contradicts other elements.Translation strategiesThe translation strategies identified in the subtitles of AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2 are categorized according to Gottlieb’s system (1992) and are defined below:1.Expansion refers to a scenario in which a lexical item in the source language requires further explanation due to a cultural nuance that does not exist in the target language.2.Paraphrase refers to changes within the utterance’s structure using different words to help the target audience accurately understand the original intent.3.Transfer is a strategy used to translate dialogue literally without any added explanation or modifications to the original text.4.Imitation is typically used to translate proper nouns, such as place or character names. Imitation maintains the same noun forms found in the original dialogue in the subtitles.5.Transcription is used to represent lexical items, such as a third language or nonsensical utterances, that are otherwise unknown to the target audience.6.Dislocation is used in special circumstances where conveying meaning and emotion is more important than simply transferring the original content from the source language to the target language. This strategy is mostly used with song lyrics.7.Condensation is used by subtitlers to abbreviate subtitles whenever unnecessary utterances can be deleted without compromising the intended meaning. However, condensation can affect the pragmatic effect of the source text and subtitlers must exercise caution when using this strategy.8.Decimation is an extreme form of condensation used when speech is too rapid to faithfully present synchronous subtitles. Situations that call for condensation include arguments and overlapping dialogue.9.Deletion refers to the omission of some parts of the original text.10.Resignation describes a situation where no strategy would adequately address the challenge presented by the original text.Discussion and FindingsFindingsAfter analyzing 50 examples from the mini-series, Table 2 summarizes the frequency of each intermodal relation between the dialogue and subtitles. Meanwhile, Table 3 summarizes the frequency of translation strategies used in the subtitles.Table 2 Intermodal relationships of verbal and non-verbal elements.Full size tableTable 3 Subtitling strategies used.Full size tableTable 2 demonstrates the different intermodal relations found between the multimodal elements in the example scenes. The most frequent intermodal relation between the source text and non-verbal elements is reinforced (43%), while complementary (6%) and parallel (1%) occurred less frequently. On the other hand, the most frequent intermodal relation between the subtitling and non-verbal elements is reinforced (25%), followed by complementary (24%), and parallel (1%).Table 3 demonstrates the subtitling strategies translators used when encountering challenging translations. The most frequently applied strategy was paraphrase (46%), followed by substitution (12%), transfer (10%), condensation (8%), decimation (6%), paraphrase and condensation (4%), imitation (4%), deletion (4%), dislocation (4%), and expansion (2%).DiscussionThe following analysis classifies each example according to its intermodal relation and translation strategy.Substitution(Table 4)Table 4 Substitution strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn Table 3, the relation between the verbal and non-verbal elements is reinforced in both the source language and the subtitling. The Arabic expression “صاروخ أرض جو صاروخ أرض جو” (literally, “A surface-to-air missile”) is used to express flirtation and describes an attractive person. The subtitlers employ a substitution strategy, translating the expression as “She’s smoking hot”. This expression conveys the same meaning, reinforced by the boys’ smiles, excitement, and happy tones as they are absorbed by the scandalous video Sarah shared by mistake. The multimodal elements alongside the spoken dialogue support one another to make the meaning comprehensible for the viewer. The same case applies to the relationship between the multimodal elements and the English subtitles. Therefore, the subtitles in this scene make the meaning clear for the reader. However, a culture-bound expression that represents the Jordanian culture more faithfully, such as “A smoking-hot missile” would have functioned better to convey social meaning (Table 5).Table 5 Substitution strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, non-verbal elements such as Hiba’s facial expressions and joyful behavior, juxtaposed with her friend’s sarcastic tone, support the Arabic expression “ما إلها حل”. This expression can be translated literally as “She has no solution”. The meaning of this phrase is dependent on the speaker’s tone; thus, Hiba’s positive expressions help convey how impressed she is by Ms. Farida. Similarly, the subtitler used the substitution technique, changing the structure of the source utterance to trigger a similar feeling by employing lexical elements that sound familiar to the target audience. The students’ happy facial expressions and tone supported the viewer’s comprehension of the intended meaning in both the original and target shows. However, the cultural flavor was absent in the subtitles, meaning that the intermodal relation between the target text and the non-verbal elements here is complementary (Table 6).Table 6 Substitution strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Sumaya, the cleaning lady, tells Shams, who is editing a video, that the school principal is opening an investigation to catch whoever installed cameras in the school. Sumaya, as a partner in Shams’s plan, was worried that she might get caught and lose her job. Nadeen was also shocked that Shams was the one who planted surveillance cameras in the school. Sumaya expressed her fear using the term “يا حسرة”. According to the Almaany dictionary, this term expresses severe grief caused by a past event. Accordingly, a suggested literal translation would be “What a pity!”. The subtitlers opted for “Oh my God!” using the substitution translation strategy. In this scene, we have two types of intermodal relations. The first intermodal relation in this scene between the Arabic original lines and the non-verbal elements is reinforced. The verbal elements support the non-verbal elements, creating a reinforced relation. The second intermodal relation that exists between the target text and other modes of tone, body language, costumes, etc, is complementary, as the subtitles in this scene failed to convey the social meaning carried by “يا حسرة” (Table 7).Table 7 Substitution strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Hiba notices that Shams brought her camera to the locker room as she argues with her. Nadeen intervenes to defend Shams, which Hiba finds strange. Hiba uses the popular Jordanian idiom “طنجرة ولقت غطاها” literally translated as “A pot found its lid”. This Jordanian idiom is used to describe two people with similar characteristics who become partners or friends. The Arabic idiom was substituted by subtitlers who used the equivalent English idiom “Two birds of a feather”. Translating this Arabic idiom into an English idiom echoes Lahiani’s argument (2024) that such a strategy preserves the intended cognitive effect, creates cultural resonance with the target culture, restores the idiom’s figurative and communicative function, and triggers a similar emotional tone. Therefore, the intermodal relation identified in this example is reinforced. Hiba looks down on both Nadeen and Shams, as evidenced by her behavior. The verbal elements are supported by the non-verbal elements, such as the sarcastic tone and Hiba’s angry facial expressions. These elements ensure the same effect on both audiences and work together to clarify the moral message of this specific proverb. Consequently, the social meaning was conveyed successfully in this scene (Table 8).Table 8 Substitution strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Jawad tries to explain to his friend that his sister is innocent and that she was blackmailed. Jawad tells his friend that he is trying to find the guy who threatened his sister but begs his friend not to tell anyone. Jawad says “بشرفك” literally meaning “on your honor”. In Jordanian culture, honor is a fundamental ethical tenet. Thus, when Jawad asks his friend to keep his secret, he demands that he swear on his honor. The translator used an expression that is more familiar to the target audience and substituted this cultural concept, simply as “please”. The verbal elements in the original dialogue are reinforced by the multimodal elements such as the angry tone, sorrowful facial expressions, camera angle, etc. However, the subtitles do not show the despair in Jawad’s words as the Arabic cultural expression does. Therefore, the target text created a complementary relation with the semiotic resources to deliver the scene’s meaning through Jawad’s facial expressions and tone (Table 9).Table 9 Substitution strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this final example, Nadeen expresses her disappointment with a friend using the common expression “طز” to express dissatisfaction and a lack of interest. The use of this expression, alongside her facial expressions and sad tone, demonstrates her disapproval of her best friend’s behavior. These verbal and non-verbal elements convey the full picture to an Arabic-speaking audience, forming a reinforced intermodal relation as the different modes work together to emphasize the meaning. Similarly, the target text coexisted with the semiotic elements to trigger the same meaning as the original. The subtitler opted for the substitution. The expression “طز” was translated as “screw them”, with the pronoun added to make the intended meaning clearer. As a result, the subtitles successfully reflected the original meaning.Paraphrase(Table 10)Table 10 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Ali defends Sarah after Hiba accuses her of flirting with him. The non-verbal elements, such as Ali’s disappointed tone and Sarah’s sad and shocked expression, reinforce the verbal elements represented by the Arabic original dialogue and the English subtitles. These elements cohesively convey the intended social meaning. The Arabic expression “بلا زناخة” (literally, “Cut it short Hiba. Stop being fishy”) is translated successfully using the paraphrase subtitling strategy. The Arabic expression “زناخة” is typically used to describe a person whose behavior is annoying, which is metaphorically described as smelling of rancid fish. The substitution of “rude” in the subtitles conveys a similar meaning and fits well with the non-verbal elements to emphasize the meaning (Table 11).Table 11 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, the different semiotic elements reinforce the viewer’s perception of the social meaning behind the original expression “ما تحشري عرضي. The term “عرضي” is typically used in the Jordanian dialect to express anger. According to the Almaany dictionary, the Arabic word “عِرض” refers to what is praised and blamed about a person regarding themselves, their predecessors, or others whom they care about. Omar conveys his rage towards his problems and his feelings towards Nadeen by using this expression. This term was also emphasized by his loud, angry tone and aggressive body language. On the other hand, the verbal and the semiotic elements in the target text complement each other, supporting the viewer’s perceptions of the intended meaning. The subtitlers paraphrased this cultural expression into a more familiar one to audiences from different cultural backgrounds. Although the general meaning in this scene is conveyed, the cultural sense of the original dialogue is absent (Table 12).Table 12 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Nadeen and Shams lie in bed while Nadeen vents her frustration about friendships. She tells Shams about how her best friend, Sarah, has let her down, which is supported by her sad tone, as Shams listens carefully with her hands crossed. The original Jordanian expression “يمقلبك” is used to describe someone who is two-faced and has let others down (literally, “to prank you”). It was translated in the subtitles as “to disappoint you” using the paraphrase strategy. In this table, the intermodal relation identified between the Arabic utterance and the non-verbal elements is reinforced. These elements, such as Nadeen’s sad tone and Shams’s poker face, contribute to communicating the original Arabic connotation. Similarly, the intermodal relation between the subtitles and the non-verbal elements is also reinforced, as the meaning was conveyed successfully via an expression that is easier for the audience to understand (Table 13).Table 13 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn the above example, Ms. Abeer tries to convince Coach Firas to quit his job, describing him as “ مهفهف” typically used to describe a good-looking person. Ms. Abeer believes it is wrong to hire a handsome male teacher in a girls’ school. According to the Almaany dictionary, this adjective refers to a graceful woman with a fit body; however, this term is not gender-bound in the Jordanian dialect. The source text was translated using the paraphrase strategy, as the word “مهفهف” was adequately substituted for “handsome”. The intermodal relation found between both the source and the target text and other modes is reinforced. The verbal mode is reinforced by Ms. Abeer’s praising tone and cheerful facial expression. Furthermore, the verbal elements are reinforced by Coach Firas’s uncomfortable body language, as Ms. Abeer’s praise carries a negative connotation. The social meaning was conveyed successfully in this scene (Table 14).Table 14 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn the above example, Hiba and Tasneem are mad at Sarah, as she defends Nadeen after she is accused of ruining the posters of the candidates running for the school presidency. The Jordanian cultural expression Sarah used “تاكل هوا” (literally, “to eat air”) has various uses in the Jordanian dialect. In this example, it is used to describe the action of getting hurt. The subtitlers opted for the paraphrase strategy to generate an expression that sounds familiar and makes more sense to the target audience. It is noticeable that the intermodal relation between the Arabic original speech and the non-verbal elements in this scene is reinforced. The facial expressions of Sarah, Hiba, and Tasneem in addition to Sarah’s hesitant tone coexisted with the verbal elements in the original version to demonstrate her fear. On the other hand, to make the meaning more accessible and easier to comprehend by the target audience, the subtitler paraphrased the original expressions into a toned-down expression. However, the subtitles “to get hurt” do not carry the same strong feeling of the original expression. Therefore, the intermodal relation between the subtitles and the non-verbal elements is complementary (Table 15).Table 15 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Marwa, one of Nadeen’s rivals for school president screams at Sarah for previously defending Nadeen. Marwa accuses Nadeen of ruining her posters and threatens her using the expression “أدعس على وجهها” meaning “to step on her face”. This expression communicated the intention to do physical harm to another person. Netflix translators used the paraphrase strategy, indicating Marwa’s intention “to beat her”. The subtitling strategy did not significantly impact the original meaning, as the multimodal elements functioned similarly in both the original and the subtitled text. Non-verbal elements, such as aggressive body language, fearful facial expressions, and Marwa’s loud, angry tone reinforced the verbal mode. These elements functioned as redundant information to ensure the audience’s perception of the meaning efficiently to both Arabic- and English-speaking viewers (Table 16).Table 16 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Tasneem calls Hiba out for constantly mistreating Sarah. Hiba, sick of Tasneem’s attitude, refers to her words as “قصف جبهات” (literally, “forehead bombing”). This common expression among Arabic speakers describes a rude or savage reply. Using the paraphrase strategy, the subtitlers render this expression, which does not exist in the English language, as “attacking me”. When it comes to the intermodal relations in this table, we can see that we also have two types of intermodal relations existing between the different modes. The Arabic utterance demonstrates defense and objection, which is reinforced by Hiba’s tone and Tasneem’s facial expressions. These elements represent the same information provided by the original dialogue. Therefore, the intermodal relation between the original dialogue and the non-verbal elements is reinforced. On the other hand, the intermodal relation between the subtitles and the non-verbal elements is complementary, as the subtitles convey the general meaning of the original, albeit at the expense of the original’s cultural character.(Table 17).Table 17 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Sarah hangs out with Ali after she and Tasneem have snuck out of school. Sarah receives a message from a blackmailer asking her to send him an inappropriate video of herself. The message unsettles her, and her discomfort is clearly reflected in her facial expressions. When Ali asks why she seems uncomfortable, Sarah describes the sender of the message as “معتوه”. This common Arabic expression is used to describe a person with mental issues. The subtitler employed the paraphrase strategy to translate this expression, which in this context functions as a swear word. Consequently, the subtitles render Sarah’s remark as “weird”. In this table, we can identify two different intermodal relations. The intermodal relation between the original expression “معتوه” and the non-verbal elements-such as the body language and tone of both characters that represented confusion and nervousness in the original show -is reinforced. This relation becomes complementary in the subtitled version, as the subtitler toned down the Arabic expression. It is worth mentioning that equivalent subtitling of swear words is a means to transfer the culture of societies. Therefore, the subtitles did not adequately convey the cultural meaning of this scene. However, when the viewer has access to other elements, such as Sarah’s facial expressions, the intended message becomes more accessible.(Table 18).Table 18 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Hiba bullies Sarah by making insulting jokes at her expense after she sings part of the song they are preparing for a school project. In reply, Sarah tells her to stop joking saying “مش وقت نغاشتك” (literally, “It’s not the time for your humor”). The Arabic expression “نغاشة” was translated as “Not funny” in the subtitles via the paraphrase strategy. The meaning behind the original lines can only be understood with contextual information like tone, body language, and facial expressions. The word “نغاشة” refers to humor, but the composition of the scene indicates that Sarah does not like Hiba’s attitude. Other modal elements such as Sarah’s smile and sarcastic tone, alongside Tasneem’s body language, represent their feeling of unease. Accordingly, the intermodal relation between the verbal and non-verbal modes in both the original show and the subtitled version is complementary.(Table 19)Table 19 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Tasneem comes across Sarah in the school hallway after looking for her all day. Tasneem asks Sarah why she has been absent, while Sarah tells Tasneem to leave her alone. Sarah’s response saddens and angers Tasneem, and she tells Sarah “بالناقص منك”, meaning “You can go to hell!”. The Arabic expression is commonly used to indicate that another person's presence is no longer wanted. Therefore, Tasneem used this utterance to express her lack of interest in her friendship with Sarah. A literal translation of this expression would be “My life can lack you”. The translator utilized the paraphrase strategy to address this expression, as it does not exist in the target language, successfully conveying the intended meaning. When it comes to the intermodal relations in this table, the relations between the original Arabic expression and its subtitling and the non-verbal elements are reinforced. The different modes present similar information to both source and target viewers. Tasneem’s anger is communicated via the multimodal elements represented by her facial expression and tone of voice. Thus, the intermodal relation in this example is reinforced (Table 20).Table 20 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this table, the intermodal relation identified is reinforced. The verbal elements represented by the original line “وسخ” and its translation, “an asshole”, confirm the same information represented by the non-verbal factors in both the original and subtitled text. In this scene, Jawad tries to reach out to the person who blackmailed his sister. Jawad’s friend takes the phone and begins watching the video, as Jawad explains the situation to him. Previously, the blackmailer put pressure on Sarah to meet him personally using the scandalous video she sent him out of fear, as he also threatened to expose their conversations. Jawad accidentally comes across this video and tries to help his sister. The semiotic elements are represented by Jawad’s fearful tone and his intention to protect his sister in light of the scandalous video. The Arabic expression “وسخ” (Lit. “Dirty”) was translated using the paraphrase strategy. The literal English translation is significantly less expressive, hence the subtitlers’ decision to paraphrase it more effectively as “an asshole” to mirror Jawad’s tone throughout the scene (Table 21).Table 21 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn the above example, the same intermodal relation exists in both the original show and the subtitled version. The non-verbal elements represented by the angry tone and the characters’ behavior, including aggressive body language, provide the same information presented by the verbal elements. In this scene, the students follow Sarah through the schoolyard, berating her after her scandalous video is exposed. The video is a source of concern for her peers; since she filmed the video wearing the AlRawabi school uniform, her indiscretion also reflects poorly on them. Sarah, clueless about the video, turns to ask them about what they are talking about. The students insist on their position, calling her “رخيصة”, which translates literally as “cheap”. This Arabic term is usually used to describe a person who is unethical or ill-mannered. This epithet was translated adequately using the paraphrase strategy, as the subtitlers opted to use “degenerate” (Table 22).Table 22 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Sarah’s mother uses the Arabic expression “إلك عين” which translates literally into “you have an eye”. Culturally speaking, this expression is used when a person is astonished by another person’s attitude when they do an act that they consider rude or shameless. Therefore, Sarah’s mother tells her daughter that she cannot ask for her phone back to call her brother. Sarah is not allowed to get her phone as she caused so much trouble. Her younger brother, Jawad, was imprisoned after stabbing a student who had bullied him over her scandalous video that had been shared online. The subtitlers opted for the paraphrase strategy to deal with the Arabic cultural expression and rendered “You still have an eye” as “You still have the nerve”. The English expression suggested an equivalence to the original line and generated a successful translation.In this scene, the source and target lines alongside the on-screen elements worked together to convey the meaning. They reinforce the same information presented by the non-verbal modes, such as the angry tone and the aggressive facial expressions. As a result, there is only one type of intermodal relations that is reinforced. (Table 23).Table 23 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Hiba and Tasneem argue in the hallway as their friendship is negatively affected by Tasneem’s new friendships with Sarah and Nadeen. Hiba irritates Tasneem by mentioning her eating disorder, describing her body as “عالتكة“. This Arabic expression refers to a case when someone is highly controlled. The Arabic expression translates literally as “On the tick” referring to the ticks of a clock, implying accuracy and discipline. The subtitler opted for the paraphrase strategy in this situation, thus, the expression was paraphrased as “flawless”. The intermodal relations identified in this table are reinforced. The non-verbal elements represented by the provocative tone and teary eyes confirm the original lines. Similarly, the non-verbal modes in this scene aid the audience’s comprehension of the intended meaning behind the subtitles. The different modes collaborated to convey the meaning behind the utterances used in both source and target texts (Table 24).Table 24 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Farah tells Hiba about her true feelings towards the show they are preparing for the school project. She finds Hiba’s insistence on refusing her participation in the show perplexing. Farah describes the show the students are doing for school as “شقفة“, literally “a piece”. In Arabic, this expression is used to refer to something trivial or unworthy. The expression was translated into “stupid” using the paraphrase strategy. Noticeably, the expression was intensified using a stronger adjective, “stupid”. The original lines in this scene are not enough to convey the full perspective, thus, the non-verbal modes created a complementary intermodal relation with the verbal elements. Farah’s facial expressions and angry tone are crucial elements here to complement the original lines. The intermodal relation between the subtitles and the other modes is changed into reinforced, as the target text repeats the same information presented by the tone, figure behavior, volume, and facial expressions (Table 25).Table 25 Paraphrase strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Tasneem tries to make Nadeen laugh, as Nadeen feels regret, thinking she ruined Sarah’s life. Tasneem mocks Nadeen’s expression, telling her that she looks like “زفت“. The Arabic expression translates literally as “tar”. This expression is used in Jordanian society to describe someone awful or ugly. The subtitler opted for the paraphrase strategy here to transmit the meaning using an expression that does not sound odd in the English language. Therefore, the expression was translated as “shit”.The intermodal relations identified in this table are complementary. The semiotic resources in both the original and subtitled versions are necessary to grasp the actual meaning behind the utterances. Both the source and target texts could not be perceived as insulting without access to other elements, such as Nadeen’s smile and tone, which implies the playful intention behind her insult.In this study, 7 additional examples were analyzed where subtitlers employed paraphrasing strategies. These examples demonstrate a reinforced intermodal relationship between the original dialogues and non-verbal elements, while the subtitled versions form a complementary relationship with other multimodal elements. Due to the huge corpus of this study, these examples are not presented in this paper, but their results contribute to the frequencies observed under table no. 1 and no. 2.Transfer(Table 26)Table 26 Transfer strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Nadeen goes to Shams’s house to work on their project together. Nadeen sits in the kitchen with Omar, and they begin to laugh and chat. Nadeen tells Shams that her brother is “نهفة”, a phrase commonly used to describe an amiable person. This term originates from the verb “نهف”, which refers to an object becoming lighter or an animal running faster. The term was subtitled by Netflix translators as “hilarious”, which adequately transmits the intended meaning. The subtitlers opted for the paraphrase strategy to provide an equivalent expression that is easily understood by the target audience. Regarding intermodal relations, the non-verbal elements in both the original show and the subtitled version reinforce the verbal elements. The intended meaning behind the Arabic expression “نهفة“ in this scene is supported by the non-verbal elements. Therefore, we can say that Nadeen is praising Omar in this scene, as inferred from her happy tone and facial expression. The reinforced intermodal relation in this scene facilitates viewers’ understanding of the intended meaning (Table 27).Table 27 Transfer strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this table, we can see that in both the original and the subtitled versions, the non-verbal elements reinforced the verbal elements. Non-verbal elements such as the bullies’ facial expressions, Issam’s wide-open eyes, his friend’s smiling face, and sarcastic tone supported the cultural meaning behind the Arabic expression. The Arabic expression used by the bullies “قرن” means “horn”. This expression refers to goat horns and is used to describe a man who is cuckolded. It was successfully translated into the colloquial English expression, “cuck”, in the target text using the transfer subtitling strategy. The different modes worked together to express the intended social meaning. The reinforced multimodal relation between the different modes played a huge role in preserving the cultural flavor of the utterance. The speaker’s behavior, for instance, clearly suggests that such an expression is used to insult the character being bullied (Table 28).Table 28 Transfer strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, the multimodal elements covering Hiba’s provocative tone, aggressive behavior, and other characters’ interaction with her shown by Nadeen’s disappointed reaction and Tasneem’s sarcastic expressions constitute a reinforced intermodal relation with both the Arabic original dialogue and the subtitles. The source utterance was translated using the transfer subtitling technique. The original expression “البسة أكلت لسانها” is used in Jordanian society to describe a person who does not defend themselves and makes others talk on their behalf. The subtitlers translated the expression almost literally in this example. Thus, the social meaning was conveyed accurately. The multimodal elements in this example support the source and the target audience’s comprehension of the intended message, repeating the same information. Therefore, the intermodal relations in this example are reinforced (Table 29).Table 29 Transfer strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, different multimodal elements harmonize with the original dialogue and the target text, stressing the intended meaning to facilitate the viewer’s comprehension. The characters’ body language demonstrates their disappointment alongside Nadeen’s sad tone, emphasized by the swear word she uses, “خرا”, to describe her current feelings about her friends. This data forms a reinforced intermodal relation between the different modes. This literal translation, using the transfer strategy suggested by Gottlieb (1992), did not significantly alter the original meaning. Therefore, the intended meaning conveyed via Jordanian dialect was successfully reproduced for the target audience (Table 30).Table 30 Transfer strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, the intermodal relations between the non-verbal elements, such as Enas’s joking and happy tone, and the verbal elements in both the source and the target utterances are complementary. The visual and auditory elements supported the audience’s understanding of this scene. The verbal elements are not enough to communicate the purpose of this scene because the Arabic expression, “تمسح الأرض”, which was translated literally in the subtitles, has a negative connotation; it is generally used to scold someone for their behavior. However, Enas’s cheerful tone supplements viewers’ understanding of her malicious joy. The cultural meaning was conveyed successfully as the expression was translated literally.Condensation(Table 31)Table 31 Condensation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this table, the relation between the original interrogative utterance, “إن شاء الله”, and the non-verbal elements, including the surprise and disturbed facial expressions of Sarah’s father is reinforced. The elements combine to emphasize the financial situation of Sarah’s family. The Arabic expression “إن شاء الله”, meaning “By god’s will”, is typically used to express unease when accompanied by annoyance. On the other hand, the target text was condensed and did not include the Arabic expression, “إن شاء الله”, which resulted in forming a complementary intermodal relation. Therefore, all of the multimodal elements are required for the target audience to comprehend the intended cultural meaning of “What’s that now?”. This religious expression usually carries a positive connotation when talking about future plans. In such cases, the speaker’s tone is vital to understanding their intentions. If the viewer did not have access to multimodal elements, they would not understand the idea properly. The cultural flavor of the dialogue is absent in this scene, as the religious connotations are absent in the subtitles (Table 32).Table 32 Condensation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Farah attends Tasneem’s sleepover and enters her room without asking for permission. Tasneem is surprised by her cousin’s attitude since she was not invited to the sleepover. The original expression, “مش بيننا”, means “not between us” and is used to stress the strength of a relationship. Farah believes that her cousin Tasneem forgot to invite her and that she is welcome even without an invitation. Therefore, such niceties do not matter in their relationship and do not stand “between them” in her opinion. As the subtitler uses the condensation strategy in this example and reduces the original expression to “It’s okay”, the viewer of the subtitled version needs non-verbal elements such as Farah’s happy tone and expression to understand her intentions. The intermodal relations identified in this table are reinforced and complementary since the semiotic resources in the original version repeat the same information presented by the dialogue. Meanwhile, in the subtitled version, the full meaning cannot be comprehended by merely reading the target text without exposure to non-verbal elements and vice versa (Table 33).Table 33 Condensation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Jawad walks into Sarah’s room to tell her that dinner is in the refrigerator. Sarah surprises him by asking him to play video games with her just like they used to before she became famous. Jawad excitedly replies by saying “احلفي! جد؟”, which literally translates to “Swear to God! For real?”. The first part of the utterance was condensed into “For real?”. This subtitling strategy used by the translator does not have a significant effect on the intended meaning, but it does omit the cultural flavor of Jawad’s expression. It is worth mentioning that religious jargon remains a significant part of Jordanian culture. Non-verbal elements such as Jawad’s happy tone and body language demonstrate his excitement at Sarah’s offer. These non-verbal elements complement the verbal elements in the original and subtitled versions. Exposure to different modes in this scene provides the context necessary to fully understand it (Table 34).Table 34 Condensation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, elements such as Tasneem’s angry tone, aggressive facial expressions, and elaborate clothing and makeup tell viewers a lot about her lifestyle and characteristics, which help constitute the intended meaning. The Arabic expression “مسخرة” translates literally into “mockery” and is colloquially used to describe a ridiculous event or person. In the original, the semiotic resources represent the intended social meaning. Therefore, the intermodal relation between the multimodal elements is reinforced. On the other hand, in the target text, the Arabic expression that demonstrates Tasneem’s anger is absent. The subtitlers reduced the text using the condensation subtitling strategy. Therefore, the previously mentioned non-verbal elements constitute a complementary intermodal relation with the subtitles. This makes it hard for the target audience to understand the exact meaning without full access to all multimodal elements. The condensation of such expressions negatively impacts the cultural flavor in this scene.Imitation(Table 35)Table 35 Imitation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Sarah asks about Nadeen’s lunch. The non-verbal elements are at odds with the verbal content of the source script and target subtitles. The camera angle, school uniforms, and Sarah’s sad tone do not reinforce or complement the social meaning of the utterance. Therefore, the intermodal relation here is parallel. The subtitlers opted for the imitation translation strategy, as they reference the name of the popular Middle Eastern dish, “شيشبرك“, mentioned by Nadeen. This subtitling strategy successfully conveys the cultural flavor of the scene to the target audience who may be unfamiliar with such information (Table 36).Table 36 Imitation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Tasneem decides to ask Sarah to join her on an outing with her friends in order to get to know each other better. Tasneem is applying lipstick and checking her look in the school’s bathroom mirror. The Taj mall is a famous shopping center in Amman that houses high-end fashion brands. The subtitler opted for the imitation strategy in this translation, translating the nouns and names of places for the benefit of target viewers. Therefore, the Arabic name “تاج“ (literally, “crown”) was transferred maintaining the same original form. The only intermodal relation identified in this table is reinforced; Tasneem’s makeup and tone indicate her intention to go to the mall with Sarah.Paraphrase and Condensation(Table 37)Table 37 Paraphrase and condensation strategies in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Omar asks Nadeen how she can be friends with his sister when they have such different characters. He sweetly asks this question, but Nadeen is unhappy, considering it rude to speak of Shams that way. Omar’s tone shows his admiration for Nadeen, which is emphasized by his use of the expression “لالله فخمة”. The adjective “فخمة”, meaning “great”, is used in Arabic to describe a person of significant value. Meanwhile, “لالله” is an expression that means “exceedingly” (literally, “to God”). This combined expression is commonly used among Ammani teenagers, typically to intensify a positive or negative statement about someone or something. While non-verbal elements such as Omar’s tone and behavior emphasize the meaning of the original conversation, the condensed and paraphrased subtitles fail to adequately capture the intended meaning. The original dialogue emphasizes elements such as tone and behavior, which are not enough in the target subtitles to convey the cultural meaning of Omar’s question. The adjective “فخمة” was translated as “stylish”, which elides the behavioral traits Omar was mainly referring to. Furthermore, the Jordanian expression “لالله” was condensed, omitting the strength of his admiration for Nadeen. Therefore, the target language viewer cannot fully understand the verbal meaning in this scene without non-verbal elements. (Table 38).Table 38 Paraphrase and condensation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Shams makes fun of her brother Omar after Nadeen praises him for going above and beyond in organizing a huge party for his birthday. She says “بيموت بالفشخرة والحكي الفاضي”, which literally translates to “He adores showing off and useless talk”. The Arabic translated by the subtitlers as “He loves being pretentious”. Two different translation strategies were used to address the two cultural expressions. The first expression, “فشخرة“ (lit. “showing off”), which refers to boastfulness, was translated using the paraphrase strategy. The second expression, “حكي فاضي” (lit. “empty talk”), indicating uselessness, was conveyed using the condensation strategy. This description, according to Shams, applies to Omar’s extravagant parties. The verbal and non-verbal elements in both the original dialogue and the subtitles constitute a reinforced multimodal relationship.Deletion(Table 39)Table 39 Deletion strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this example, Hiba pressures Sarah to take part in their plan to frame Nadeen for ruining her rivals’ posters. Hiba calls Sarah “زعرة”, a Jordanian term used to describe a conniving person. After Sarah assents to join Hiba’s scheme, Hiba calls her “زعرة“ with a sinister grin. Sarah smiles back awkwardly, as she is not complicit in Hiba’s plan. In the target text, the adjective “زعرة” was omitted, altering the intermodal relation between the subtitles and the non-verbal elements. Accordingly, two types of intermodal relations are depicted in this example. The first is reinforced as the verbal elements in the Arabic original are emphasized by facial expressions, body language, and tone. The second is complementary, as the non-verbal elements are imperative for viewers to comprehend the social meaning of this expression. Consequently, the subtitles failed to communicate the intended social meaning (Table 40).Table 40 Deletion strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Hiba scolds Sarah for not joining them in ruining the posters in the hallway. She insults Sarah, using the expression “زي اللوح” (lit. “like a board”). This utterance in the original creates a reinforced intermodal relationship between the different modes; the non-verbal elements emphasized the original dialogue and succeeded in conveying the meaning on its own. In translation, however, the subtitlers opted for the deletion strategy, excluding this Arabic expression from the subtitles. This created a complementary intermodal relation between the verbal elements represented in the subtitles and the non-verbal elements represented in Hiba’s tone and Sarah’s body language. Sarah’s attitude demonstrates her disagreement with her classmates’ unethical behavior. The omission of the insult made it necessary for the viewer to have access to other multimodal elements to understand the intended message.Decimation(Table 41)Table 41 Decimation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Ms. Abeer blames the students’ behavior on Ms. Farida who changed school policy to create a more liberated environment. Nadeen had previously addressed an incident in biology class where Ms. Abeer skipped the textbook chapter on sex education. The subtitlers omitted part of the utterance, specifically “ولا شايفين حدا قدامهم” (lit. “they do not see anyone in front of them”) referring to the rebellious behavior that irritated Ms. Abeer. The table above demonstrates that the subtitlers used the decimation strategy to handle rapid dialogue and synchronize the subtitles with the scene. This strategy did not affect the original meaning and created a reinforced intermodal relationship for the Arabic original and the English subtitles. The verbal mode in both the original dialogue and the source text was reinforced by the angry tone, aggressive body language, and facial expressions of both characters. The different modes worked together to convey the intended meaning (Table 42).Table 42 Decimation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn the above example, the students sneak into school to ruin the student council presidency posters of all the candidates except for Nadeen’s, in order to make their classmates believe that Nadeen was the behind it. One student hears a sound from far away and alerts the other girls. Hiba scolds her saying “وقعتي قلبي“, literally meaning, “You made my heart drop”. This Jordanian expression, which is also familiar to English-speaking audiences, is used to express sudden fear. The Arabic expression was omitted from the subtitles in order to maintain synchronization with the scene, although the decimation strategy did not materially alter the meaning of the original. The semiotic resources represented in the attitude of the characters, the angry tone, and the other non-verbal elements emphasized the verbal modes in the source and target texts (Table 43).Table 43 Decimation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, the school principal has barred Shams and Nadeen from class for refusing to hand over their phones. Shams offers Nadeen a snack in an attempt to get closer to her. Nadeen feels awkward since Shams is an introverted classmate who rarely interacts with other people. The relation between the original Arabic utterance, “بدك بزر؟”, and the non-verbal elements are reinforced in this scene. The non-verbal elements provide redundant information, as the Arabic-speaking viewer will find it easy to grasp the fact that Shams is kindly offering Nadeen sunflower seeds, a culturally popular snack, only by exposure to visual cues. Therefore, the verbal elements’ role here is to emphasize the cultural meaning, making it easier for the audience to comprehend. Meanwhile, the subtitles did not identify the sunflower seeds Shams is offering, which forms a complementary intermodal relation. The English-speaking viewer needs to be exposed to all the verbal and non-verbal cues to deduce the intended meaning behind the utterance. Therefore, the subtitles do not function to communicate the social meaning in this scene, although the target audience can understand that Shams is offering Nadeen something through non-verbal cues. Thus, this example highlights the importance of multimodal elements.Dislocation(Table 44)Table 44 Dislocation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableAs seen in this example, a group of students are heading to the mall to shop for clothes. On their way, they sing along to a song by Jordanian artist Aziz Maraka. The song lyrics say “بحبك أنتِ”, meaning “I love you”. The subtitlers used the dislocation strategy, which is often used to translate song lyrics and special effects. Thus, the song lyrics were translated to “love is so sweet”, which conveyed the same emotions as the original Arabic lyrics despite the literal change in meaning. The non-verbal elements in this scene, such as the cheerful tone and happy facial expressions, work together with the original dialogue to enhance the audience’s understanding. Similarly, the subtitles did not affect the social meaning or emotions of the lyrics even without reference to the other multimodal elements. Therefore, the intermodal relationship between the subtitles and the non-verbal elements in the scene is also reinforced (Table 45).Table 45 Dislocation strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this table, the same intermodal relationship exists between the source text, target text, and other modes. The verbal and non-verbal elements work together to boost the viewer’s comprehension in both the original and the subtitled versions. In this scene, the students practice the song and choreography they will perform as part of their school project. The lyrics of this song can be described as rebellious. The female students express their rejection of social concepts and traditions. The lyrics in this scene, “ما حأحمل صينية، ما حضيف حدا”, refer to the Jordanian tradition that obliges women to handle household chores and to serve guests. The lyrics could be translated as “I won’t carry the tray; I won’t serve anyone”. In the subtitles this was rendered as “I won’t entertain any guests”, using the dislocation strategy to provide the same effect as the original song lyrics.Expansion(Table 46)Table 46 Expansion strategy in subtitling AlRawabi School for Girls.Full size tableIn this scene, Hiba becomes angry at Shams and her camera, whom she accuses of taking pictures of students in the locker room. Hiba uses the Arabic expression “مقرفة” to describe Shams, which literally translates as “disgusting”. The subtitler opted for the expansion strategy to translate this insult. The Jordanian dialectic expression was translated into English as “creepy pervert”. In this table, only one intermodal relation can be identified, as the non-verbal elements approximately reinforce the same information presented by the verbal elements. Accordingly, elements such as Hiba’s angry tone and aggressive body language aid viewers’ understanding of the verbal elements, which reinforces viewers’ cultural understanding as well.ConclusionThis study aimed to answer three major questions: (1) what role do multimodal elements play in conveying meaning in season 2 of AlRawabi School for Girls?; (2) what challenges did Netflix subtitlers encounter when faced with different cultural expressions, including taboo language, religious jargon, and humor?; and (3) which strategies did subtitlers use to address those challenges?In this study, 50 examples from the series were analyzed using the descriptive comparative approach. These examples address various cultural, social, and religious situations. Furthermore, the examples were analyzed at three levels: the representational level, including a description of identification, activity, and circumstances; the interactive level, which identifies the relations between the characters; and the level of intermodal relation between verbal and non-verbal elements.The findings reveal that paraphrasing is the most frequently used mitigation strategy, either toning down or euphemizing the meaning of cultural expressions in English subtitles. These findings align with Hjort (2009), Hawel (2019), Alsharhan (2020), Al-Harahsheh, Malkawi, and Al-Motlak (2025), who all find that the target-oriented approach is prioritized over the source-oriented approach. While micro-level strategies (paraphrase, substitution, transfer, condensation, imitation, dislocation, decimation, and deletion) mitigate the cultural flavor of some sensitive expressions, they offer broader implications regarding the subtitling process in AlRawabi School for Girls Season 2. The above researchers have unanimously recognized Arabic as a conservative language that employs euphemistic expressions, particularly in comparison to the frankness of most Anglophone media. However, the discussion challenges this pre-existing cultural orientation, revealing that contemporary English and Arabic audiences are open to vulgar, informal, and taboo language. This realization indicates the evolving nature of generational norms expressed through language. As the contemporary Jordanian language used in the Netflix series tolerates impolite expressions, taboo expressions, and cultural colloquial expressions, the discussion reveals that impolite expressions in Arabic are replaced with equivalent expressions in English. However, the subtitles obscure the cultural flavor in other sensitive expressions.The loss of cultural flavor in sensitive expressions is mitigated by the presence of multimodal elements available to Anglophone audiences. As demonstrated in the discussion section, complementary intermodal relationships were formed far more frequently in the English subtitles than in spoken Arabic, suggesting that the Anglophone viewer relied more on audiovisual elements to understand social, cultural, and pragmatic meaning. Had the complementary intermodal relationships remained infrequent as they were in the original Arabic dialogue, the quality of the subtitles would have suffered, and Anglophone viewers would inevitably have understood the nuances of the show far less.The study also concludes that there are three main problems with subtitling Jordanian cultural expressions in English. First, religious expressions were removed from the subtitles. For example, the religious expression “إن شاء الله“ was completely omitted from the target text. Second, a significant amount of cultural flavor was lost when subtitling some utterances. For example, the Jordanian expression “يا حسرة“, which implies sorrow and grief, was translated as “Oh my God” without concern for the cultural context. Additionally, the commonly used adjective “زعرة“, which refers to a rebellious person, was omitted completely from the subtitles. Third, in some examples, swearing was toned down even though English-speaking societies are known to be comparably less sensitive to such language. For example, “حقيرة“ (literally, “despicable”) was changed to “bad”. As a result, the intermodal relationships between verbal and non-verbal elements were not always consistent in translation. From the perspective of multimodal discourse analysis, this study highlights the need for further research on how to effectively convey meaning from colloquial Arabic to English and to better engage foreign audiences with the cultural aspects of Arabic content. For instance, an investigation of humor in Arabic Netflix shows is a compelling line of research, exploring how multimodal elements contribute to facilitating non-Arab Netflix viewers’ experience while watching subtitled Arabic shows.Future research could address a key limitation of the present study and consider how actual Western Anglophone viewers are able to understand and interpret English subtitles in Netflix’s Arabic programming. For example, using quantitative findings from the present study as a control group, interviews with Anglophone viewers of each sample could provide qualitative data to support the effectiveness of Netflix’s subtitles in accurately conveying meaning across language and culture. Furthermore, such a study could help corroborate Gottlieb’s claim that subtitling reinforces the global dominance of English or Cornin’s claim that subtitling is an effective medium of cultural transfer and understanding.